Republic of Yemen اَلْـجُـمْـهُـوْرِيَّـة الْـيَـمَـنِـيَّـة (Arabic) al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah
Flag
Emblem
Motto: الله، اَلْـوَطَـن، اَلـثَّـوْرَة، اَلْـوَحْـدَة (Arabic) "Allāh, al-Waṭan, ath-Thawrah, al-Waḥdah" "God, Country, Revolution, Unity"
Anthem: اَلْـجُـمْـهُـوْرِيَّـة الْـمُـتَّـحِـدَة (Arabic) al-Jumhūrīyah al-Muttaḥidah (English: "United Republic")
Location of Yemen (red)
Capital and largest city Sana'a
Official languages Arabic
Religion Islam
Demonym Yemeni, Yemenite
Government Provisional government
• President
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi Recognized
• Prime Minister
Ahmed Obeid bin Daghr
Ahmed Obeid bin Daghr Recognized
• President of the Supreme Political Council
Saleh Ali al-Sammad
Saleh Ali al-Sammad SPC
• Prime Minister
Abdel-Aziz bin Habtour
Abdel-Aziz bin Habtour SPC
Legislature House of Representatives
Establishment
•
North Yemen
North Yemen (Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen) independencea
1 November 1918
•
South Yemen
South Yemen independenceb
30 November 1967
• Unification
22 May 1990
Area
• Total
527,968 km2 (203,850 sq mi) (49th)
• Water (%)
negligible
Population
• 2016 estimate
27,584,213[1] (48th)
• 2004 census
19,685,000[2]
• Density
44.7/km2 (115.8/sq mi) (160th)
GDP (PPP) 2017 estimate
• Total
$117.679 billion[3]
• Per capita
$2,818[3]
GDP (nominal) 2017 estimate
• Total
$37.307 billion[3]
• Per capita
$1,244[3]
Gini (2014) 36.7[4] medium
HDI (2015) 0.482[5] low · 168th
Currency
Yemeni rial
Yemeni rial (YER)
Time zone AST (UTC+3)
Drives on the right[6]
Calling code +967
ISO 3166 code YE
Internet TLD .ye, اليمن.
From the Ottoman Empire. From the United Kingdom.
Yemen
Yemen (/ˈjɛmən/ ( listen); Arabic:
اَلْـيَـمَـن, al-Yaman), officially known as the
Republic of
Yemen
Yemen (Arabic:
اَلْـجُـمْـهُـوْرِيَّـة
الْـيَـمَـنِـيَّـة, al-Jumhūrīyah
al-Yamanīyah), is an
Arab
Arab sovereign state in
Western Asia
.svg/400px-Western_Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Western Asia at the
southern end of the Arabian Peninsula.
Yemen
Yemen is the second-largest
country in the peninsula, occupying 527,970 square kilometres (203,850
square miles). The coastline stretches for about 2,000 kilometres
(1,200 miles).[7] It is bordered by
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red
Sea to the west, the
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Aden and
Arabian Sea
Arabian Sea to the south, and
Oman
Oman to the east-northeast. Although Yemen's constitutionally stated
capital is the city of Sana'a, the city has been under Houthi rebel
control since February 2015. Yemen's territory includes more than 200
islands; the largest of these is Socotra.
Yemen
Yemen was the home of the
Sabaeans
Sabaeans (biblical Sheba),[8][9][10] a
trading state that flourished for over a thousand years and also
included parts of modern-day
Ethiopia
Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 275 CE, the
region came under the rule of the later Jewish-influenced Himyarite
Kingdom.[11]
Christianity
Christianity arrived in the fourth century.
Islam
Islam spread
quickly in the seventh century and Yemenite troops were crucial in the
expansion of the early Islamic conquests.[12] Administration of Yemen
has long been notoriously difficult.[13] Several dynasties emerged
from the ninth to 16th centuries, the
Rasulid dynasty
Rasulid dynasty being the
strongest and most prosperous. The country was divided between the
Ottoman and British empires in the early twentieth century. The Zaydi
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was established after
World War I
World War I in
North Yemen
North Yemen before the creation of the
Yemen Arab Republic
Yemen Arab Republic in 1962.
South Yemen
South Yemen remained a British protectorate known as the Aden
Protectorate until 1967 when it became an independent state and later,
a
Marxist
Marxist state. The two Yemeni states united to form the modern
republic of
Yemen
Yemen in 1990.
Yemen
Yemen is a developing country,[14] and the poorest country in the
Middle East.[15] Under the rule of President
Ali
Ali Abdullah Saleh, Yemen
was described by critics as a kleptocracy.[16][17] According to the
2009 international corruption Perception Index by Transparency
International,
Yemen
Yemen ranked 164 out of 182 countries surveyed.[18] In
the absence of strong state institutions, elite politics in Yemen
constituted a de facto form of collaborative governance, where
competing tribal, regional, religious, and political interests agreed
to hold themselves in check through tacit acceptance of the balance it
produced.[19] The informal political settlement was held together by a
power-sharing deal among three men: President Saleh, who controlled
the state; major general
Ali
Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar, who controlled the
largest share of the Republic of
Yemen
Yemen Armed Forces; and Abdullah ibn
Husayn al-Ahmar, figurehead of the Islamist Islah party and Saudi
Arabia's chosen broker of transnational patronage payments to various
political players,[20] including tribal sheikhs.[21][22][23][24] The
Saudi payments have been intended to facilitate the tribes' autonomy
from the Yemeni government and to give the Saudi government a
mechanism with which to weigh in on Yemen's political
decision-making.[25]
It is a member of the United Nations,
Arab
Arab League, Organisation of the
Islamic Cooperation, G-77, Non-Aligned Movement,
Arab
Arab Satellite
Communications Organization,
Arab Monetary Fund
Arab Monetary Fund and the World
Federation of Trade Unions.
From 2011,
Yemen
Yemen has been in a state of political crisis starting with
street protests against poverty, unemployment, corruption, and
president Saleh's plan to amend Yemen's constitution and eliminate the
presidential term limit, in effect making him president for life.[26]
President Saleh stepped down and the powers of the presidency were
transferred to Vice President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, who was formally
elected president on 21 February 2012 in a one-man election. The
transitional process was part of the UN-backed Gulf Cooperation
Council Initiative known as National Dialogue Conference. In September
2014, the
Houthis
Houthis took over
Sana'a
.jpg/550px-Sanaa_HDR_(16482367935).jpg)
Sana'a with the help of the ousted
president Saleh,[27][28][29] later declaring themselves in control of
the country after a coup d'état; Saleh was shot dead by a sniper in
Sana'a
Sana'a in December 2017.[30] This resulted in a new civil war and a
Saudi Arabian-led military intervention aimed at restoring Hadi's
government.[31]
The war has blocked food imports, leading to a famine that is
affecting 17 million people.[32] The lack of safe drinking water,
caused by depleted aquifers and the destruction of the country's water
infrastructure, has also caused the world's worst outbreak of cholera,
with the number of suspected cases exceeding 994,751.[33] Over 2,226
people have died since the outbreak began to spread rapidly at the end
of April 2017.[34][33] In 2016 the
United Nations
United Nations reported that Yemen
is the country with the most people in need of humanitarian aid in the
world with 21.2 million.[35]
Contents
1 Etymology 2 History
2.1 Ancient history 2.2 Middle Ages
2.2.1 Advent of
Islam
Islam and the three dynasties
2.2.2 Sulayhid
Dynasty
Dynasty (1047–1138)
2.2.3 Ayyubid conquest (1171–1260)
2.2.4 Rasulid
Dynasty
Dynasty (1229–1454)
2.2.5 Tahiride
Dynasty
Dynasty (1454–1517)
2.3 Modern history
2.3.1 The Zaydis and Ottomans 2.3.2 Great Britain and the Nine Regions 2.3.3 Ottoman return 2.3.4 Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen 2.3.5 Colonial Aden 2.3.6 Two states 2.3.7 Unification and civil war
2.4 Contemporary Yemen
2.4.1 Al Qaeda 2.4.2 Revolution and aftermath
3 Geography
3.1 Regions and climate 3.2 Biodiversity
4 Politics
4.1 Foreign relations 4.2 Human rights
4.2.1 Human trafficking
4.3 Military 4.4 Administrative divisions
5 Economy
5.1 Agriculture 5.2 Industry 5.3 Labour force 5.4 Export and import 5.5 State budget 5.6 International relations 5.7 Water supply and sanitation
6 Demographics
6.1 Ethnic groups 6.2 Languages 6.3 Urban areas 6.4 Religion
7 Culture
7.1 Media
7.2 Theatre
7.3 Sport
7.4
World Heritage
World Heritage sites
8 Education 9 Health 10 See also 11 References 12 External links
Etymology[edit]
See also:
Syria
Syria (region) § Shaam
Yemen
Yemen was mentioned in
Old South Arabian
Old South Arabian inscriptions as Yamnat.[36]
In
Arabic
Arabic literature, the term al-Yaman includes much greater
territory than that of the republic of Yemen. It stretches from the
northern
'Asir Region
'Asir Region in southwestern
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia to Dhofar
Governorate in southern Oman.[37][38] One etymology derives
Yemen
Yemen from
ymnt, meaning "South", and significantly plays on the notion of the
land to the right (𐩺𐩣𐩬).[39] Other sources claim that Yemen
is related to yamn or yumn, meaning "felicity" or "blessed", as much
of the country is fertile.[40][41] The Romans called it Arabia Felix
(happy Arabia), as opposed to
Arabia Deserta
Arabia Deserta (deserted Arabia).
History[edit]
Main article: History of Yemen
Ancient history[edit]
Main articles: Ancient history of Yemen, Sabaeans, Qataban, Minaeans,
and
Himyarite
Himyarite Kingdom
A
Sabaean
Sabaean gravestone of a woman holding a stylized sheaf of wheat, a
symbol of fertility in ancient Yemen
A funerary stela featuring a musical scene, first century CE
Himyarite
Himyarite King Dhamar
Ali
Ali Yahbur II
Ruins of the Great Dam of Marib
With its long sea border between eastern and western civilizations,
Yemen
Yemen has long existed at a crossroads of cultures with a strategic
location in terms of trade on the west of the Arabian Peninsula. Large
settlements for their era existed in the mountains of northern Yemen
as early as 5000 BC.[42]
The
Sabaean
Sabaean Kingdom came into existence from at least the 11th century
BC.[43] The four major kingdoms or tribal confederations in South
Arabia were: Saba, Hadramout, Qataban, and Ma'in. Saba’ (Arabic:
سَـبَـأ)[44][45] is thought to be biblical Sheba, and was
the most prominent federation.[46] The
Sabaean
Sabaean rulers adopted the
title
Mukarrib generally thought to mean unifier,[47] or a
priest-king,[48] or the head of confederation of South Arabian
kingdoms, the 'king of the kings'.[49] The role of the
Mukarrib was to
bring the various tribes under the kingdom and preside over them
all.[50] The Sabaens built the Great Dam of
Marib
Marib around 940 BC.[51]
The dam was built to withstand the seasonal flash floods surging down
the valley.
Between 700 and 680 BC, the
Kingdom of Awsan
Kingdom of Awsan dominated
Aden
Aden and its
surroundings and challenged the
Sabaean
Sabaean supremacy in the Arabian
South.
Sabaean
Sabaean
Mukarrib
Karib'il Watar
Karib'il Watar I conquered the entire realm of
Awsan,[52] and expanded
Sabaean
Sabaean rule and territory to include much of
South Arabia.[53] Lack of water in the
Arabian Peninsula
.png/500px-Arabian_Peninsula_(orthographic_projection).png)
Arabian Peninsula prevented the
Sabaeans
Sabaeans from unifying the entire peninsula. Instead, they established
various colonies to control trade routes.[54]
Evidence of
Sabaean
Sabaean influence is found in northern Ethiopia, where the
South Arabian alphabet, religion and pantheon, and the South Arabian
style of art and architecture were introduced.[55][56][57] The Sabaean
created a sense of identity through their religion. They worshipped
El-Maqah and believed that they were his children.[58] For centuries,
the
Sabaeans
Sabaeans controlled outbound trade across the Bab-el-Mandeb, a
strait separating the
Arabian Peninsula
Arabian Peninsula from the
Horn of Africa
Horn of Africa and
the
Red Sea
Red Sea from the Indian Ocean.[59]
By the third century BC, Qataban, Hadramout, and Ma'in became
independent from Saba and established themselves in the Yemeni arena.
Minaean rule stretched as far as Dedan,[60] with their capital at
Baraqish. The
Sabaeans
Sabaeans regained their control over Ma'in after the
collapse of
Qataban
Qataban in 50 BCE. By the time of the Roman expedition to
Arabia Felix in 25 BC, the
Sabaeans
Sabaeans were once again the dominating
power in Southern Arabia.[61]
Aelius Gallus was ordered to lead a
military campaign to establish Roman dominance over the Sabaeans.[62]
The Romans had a vague and contradictory geographical knowledge about
Arabia Felix or Yemen. The Roman army of 10,000 men was defeated
before Marib.[63] Strabo's close relationship with
Aelius Gallus led
him to attempt to justify his friend's defeat in his writings. It took
the Romans six months to reach
Marib
Marib and 60 days to return to Egypt.
The Romans blamed their Nabataean guide and executed him for
treachery.[64] No direct mention in
Sabaean
Sabaean inscriptions of the Roman
expedition has yet been found.
After the Roman expedition – perhaps earlier – the
country fell into chaos, and two clans, namely Hamdan and Himyar,
claimed kingship, assuming the title King of
Sheba
Sheba and Dhu Raydan.[65]
Dhu Raydan, i.e., Himyarites, allied themselves with
Aksum
Aksum in Ethiopia
against the Sabaeans.[66] The chief of
Bakil and king of Saba and Dhu
Raydan, El Sharih Yahdhib, launched successful campaigns against the
Himyarites and Habashat, i.e., Aksum, El Sharih took pride in his
campaigns and added the title Yahdhib to his name, which means
"suppressor"; he used to kill his enemies by cutting them to
pieces.[67]
Sana'a
Sana'a came into prominence during his reign, as he built
the
Ghumdan Palace
Ghumdan Palace as his place of residence.
The
Himyarite
Himyarite annexed
Sana'a
Sana'a from Hamdan around 100 CE.[68] Hashdi
tribesmen rebelled against them and regained
Sana'a
Sana'a around 180 AD.[69]
Shammar Yahri'sh
Shammar Yahri'sh had not conquered Hadramout, Najran, and
Tihama
Tihama until
275 CE, thus unifying
Yemen
Yemen and consolidating
Himyarite
Himyarite rule.[70][71]
The Himyarites rejected polytheism and adhered to a consensual form of
monotheism called Rahmanism.[72]
In 354 CE,
Roman Emperor
Roman Emperor
Constantius II
.jpg/440px-Bust_of_Constantius_II_(Mary_Harrsch).jpg)
Constantius II sent an embassy headed by
Theophilos the Indian to convert the Himyarites to Christianity.[73]
According to Philostorgius, the mission was resisted by local
Jews.[74] Several inscriptions have been found in Hebrew and Sabaean
praising the ruling house in Jewish terms for "...helping and
empowering the People of Israel."[75]
According to Islamic traditions, King As'ad the Perfect mounted a
military expedition to support the Jews of Yathrib.[76] Abu Kariba
As'ad, as known from the inscriptions, led a military campaign to
central Arabia or
Najd
Najd to support the vassal Kingdom of
Kindah
Kindah against
the Lakhmids.[77] However, no direct reference to Judaism or Yathrib
was discovered from his lengthy reign. Abu Kariba died in 445 CE,
having reigned for almost 50 years.[78] By 515 AD,
Himyar
Himyar became
increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitter conflict
between different factions paved the way for an Aksumite intervention.
The last
Himyarite
Himyarite king Ma'adikarib Ya'fur was supported by Aksum
against his Jewish rivals. Ma'adikarib was Christian and launched a
campaign against the
Lakhmids
Lakhmids in southern Iraq, with the support of
other
Arab
Arab allies of Byzantium.[79] The
Lakhmids
Lakhmids were a Bulwark of
Persia, which was intolerant to a proselytizing religion like
Christianity.[80]
After the death of Ma'adikarib Ya'fur around 521 CE, a Himyarite
Jewish warlord named Yousef Asar Yathar rose to power with the
honorary title of Yathar (meaning, "to avenge"). Yemenite Christians,
aided by
Aksum
Aksum and Byzantium, systematically persecuted Jews and
burned down several synagogues across the land. Yousef avenged his
people with great cruelty.[81] He marched toward the port city of
Mocha, killing 14,000 and capturing 11,000.[79] Then he settled a camp
in
Bab-el-Mandeb
Bab-el-Mandeb to prevent aid flowing from Aksum. At the same time,
Yousef sent an army under the command of another Jewish warlord,
Sharahil Yaqbul, to Najran. Sharahil had reinforcements from the
Bedouins of the
Kindah
Kindah and
Madh'hij tribes, eventually wiping out the
Christian community in Najran.[82]
Yousef or
Dhu Nuwas
Dhu Nuwas (the one with sidelocks) as known in Arabic
literature, believed that Christians in
Yemen
Yemen were a fifth column.[83]
Christian sources portray
Dhu Nuwas
Dhu Nuwas (Yousef Asar) as a Jewish zealot,
while Islamic traditions say that he threw 20,000 Christians into pits
filled with flaming oil.[81] This history, however, is shrouded in
legend.[74]
Dhu Nuwas
Dhu Nuwas left two inscriptions, neither of them making
any reference to fiery pits.
Byzantium
Byzantium had to act or lose all
credibility as protector of eastern Christianity. It is reported that
Byzantium
Byzantium Emperor
Justin I
Justin I sent a letter to the Aksumite King Kaleb,
pressuring him to "...attack the abominable Hebrew."[79] A tripartite
military alliance of Byzantine, Aksumite, and
Arab
Arab Christians
successfully defeated Yousef around 525–527 CE, and a client
Christian king was installed on the
Himyarite
Himyarite throne.[84]
Esimiphaios was a local Christian lord, mentioned in an inscription
celebrating the burning of an ancient
Sabaean
Sabaean palace in
Marib
Marib to build
a church on its ruins.[85] Three new churches were built in Najran
alone.[85] Many tribes did not recognize Esimiphaios's authority.
Esimiphaios was displaced in 531 by a warrior named Abraha, who
refused to leave
Yemen
Yemen and declared himself an independent king of
Himyar.[86]
Emperor
Justinian I
.jpg/440px-Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_(Ravenna).jpg)
Justinian I sent an embassy to Yemen. He wanted the officially
Christian Himyarites to use their influence on the tribes in inner
Arabia to launch military operations against Persia. Justinian I
bestowed the "dignity of king" upon the
Arab
Arab sheikhs of
Kindah
Kindah and
Ghassan in central and northern Arabia.[86] From early on, Roman and
Byzantine policy was to develop close links with the powers of the
coast of the Red Sea. They were successful in converting[clarification
needed]
Aksum
Aksum and influencing their culture. The results with regard
to
Yemen
Yemen were rather disappointing.[86]
A Kendite prince called Yazid bin Kabshat rebelled against
Abraha
Abraha and
his
Arab
Arab Christian allies. A truce was reached once the Great Dam of
Marib
Marib had suffered a breach.[87]
Abraha
Abraha died around 555–565; no
reliable sources regarding his death are available. The Sasanid empire
annexed
Aden
Aden around 570 CE. Under their rule, most of
Yemen
Yemen enjoyed
great autonomy except for
Aden
Aden and Sana'a. This era marked the
collapse of ancient South Arabian civilization, since the greater part
of the country was under several independent clans until the arrival
of
Islam
Islam in 630 CE.[88]
Middle Ages[edit]
See also: Islamic history of Yemen
Advent of
Islam
Islam and the three dynasties[edit]
Main articles: Yufirids, Ziyadid Dynasty, and Imams of Yemen
The interior of the Great Mosque of Sana'a, the oldest mosque in Yemen
Muhammed
Muhammed sent his cousin
Ali
Ali to
Sana'a
Sana'a and its surroundings around 630
CE. At the time,
Yemen
Yemen was the most advanced region in Arabia.[89] The
Banu Hamdan confederation was among the first to accept Islam.
Muhammed
Muhammed sent Muadh ibn Jabal, as well to Al-Janad, in present-day
Taiz, and dispatched letters to various tribal leaders. The reason
behind this was the division among the tribes and the absence of a
strong central authority in
Yemen
Yemen during the days of the prophet.[90]
Major tribes, including Himyar, sent delegations to
Medina
Medina during the
"year of delegations" around 630–631 CE. Several Yemenis accepted
Islam
Islam before the year 630, such as Ammar ibn Yasir, Al-Ala'a
Al-Hadrami, Miqdad ibn Aswad, Abu Musa Ashaari, and Sharhabeel ibn
Hasana. A man named 'Abhala ibn Ka'ab Al-Ansi expelled the remaining
Persians and claimed he was a prophet of Rahman. He was assassinated
by a Yemeni of Persian origin called Fayruz al-Daylami. Christians,
who were mainly staying in
Najran
Najran along with Jews, agreed to pay
jizyah (Arabic: جِـزْيَـة), although some Jews converted
to Islam, such as
Wahb ibn Munabbih and Ka'ab al-Ahbar.
Yemen
Yemen was stable during the
Rashidun
Rashidun Caliphate. Yemeni tribes played a
pivotal role in the Islamic expansion of Egypt, Iraq, Persia, the
Levant, Anatolia, North Africa, Sicily, and Andalusia.[91][92][93]
Yemeni tribes who settled in Syria, contributed significantly to the
solidification of Umayyad rule, especially during the reign of Marwan
I. Powerful Yemenite tribes such as
Kindah
Kindah were on his side during the
Battle of Marj Rahit.[94][95]
Several emirates led by people of Yemeni descent were established in
North Africa
North Africa and Andalusia. Effective control over entire
Yemen
Yemen was
not achieved by the Umayyad Caliphate.
Imam
Imam Abdullah ibn Yahya
Al-Kindi was elected in 745 CE to lead the Ibāḍī movement in
Hadramawt
Hadramawt and Oman. He expelled the Umayyad governor from
Sana'a
Sana'a and
captured
Mecca
Mecca and
Medina
Medina in 746.[96] Al-Kindi, known by his nickname
"Talib al-Haqq" (seeker of truth), established the first
Ibadi
Ibadi state
in the history of Islam, but was killed in Taif around 749.[96]
Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Ziyad founded the
Ziyadid dynasty in Tihama
around 818 CE. The state stretched from Haly (in present-day Saudi
Arabia) to Aden. They nominally recognized the Abbasid Caliphate, but
were in fact ruling independently from their capital in Zabid.[97] The
history of this dynasty is obscure. They never exercised control over
the highlands and Hadramawt, and did not control more than a coastal
strip of the
Yemen
Yemen (Tihama) bordering the Red Sea.[98] A Himyarite
clan called the
Yufirids established their rule over the highlands
from Saada to Taiz, while
Hadramawt
Hadramawt was an
Ibadi
Ibadi stronghold and
rejected all allegiance to the Abbasids in Baghdad.[97] By virtue of
its location, the
Ziyadid dynasty of
Zabid
.jpg/560px-From_the_Imam's_guesthouse_(8682268943).jpg)
Zabid developed a special
relationship with Abyssinia. The chief of the Dahlak islands exported
slaves, as well as amber and leopard hides, to the then ruler of
Yemen.[99]
The first Zaidi imam, Yahya ibn al-Husayn, arrived in
Yemen
Yemen in 893 CE.
He was the founder of the Zaidi imamate in 897. He was a religious
cleric and judge who was invited to come to Saada from
Medina
Medina to
arbitrate tribal disputes.[100]
Imam
Imam Yahya persuaded local tribesmen
to follow his teachings. The sect slowly spread across the highlands,
as the tribes of
Hashid and Bakil, later known as "the twin wings of
the imamate," accepted his authority.[101]
Yahya established his influence in Saada and Najran. He also tried to
capture
Sana'a
Sana'a from the
Yufirids in 901 CE, but failed miserably. In
904, the
Qarmatians
Qarmatians invaded Sana'a. The Yufirid emir As'ad ibn Ibrahim
retreated to Al-Jawf, and between 904 and 913,
Sana'a
Sana'a was conquered no
less than 20 times by
Qarmatians
Qarmatians and Yufirids.[102] As'ad ibn Ibrahim
regained
Sana'a
Sana'a in 915.
Yemen
Yemen was in turmoil as
Sana'a
Sana'a became a
battlefield for the three dynasties, as well as independent tribes.
The Yufirid emir Abdullah ibn Qahtan attacked and burned
Zabid
Zabid in 989,
severely weakening the Ziyadid dynasty.[103] The Ziyadid monarchs lost
effective power after 989, or even earlier than that. Meanwhile, a
succession of slaves held power in
Zabid
Zabid and continued to govern in
the name of their masters, eventually establishing their own dynasty
around 1022 or 1050 according to different sources.[104] Although they
were recognized by the
Abbasid Caliphate
Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, they ruled no
more than
Zabid
Zabid and four districts to its north.[105] The rise of the
Ismaili
Ismaili
Shia
Shia
Sulayhid dynasty in the Yemeni highlands reduced their
history to a series of intrigues.
Sulayhid
Dynasty
Dynasty (1047–1138)[edit]
Main article: Sulayhid dynasty
Jibla became the capital of the Sulayhid dynasty
The
Sulayhid dynasty was founded in the northern highlands around
1040; at the time,
Yemen
Yemen was ruled by different local dynasties. In
1060,
Ali
Ali ibn
Muhammed
Muhammed Al-Sulayhi conquered
Zabid
Zabid and killed its ruler
Al-Najah, founder of the Najahid dynasty. His sons were forced to flee
to Dahlak.[106]
Hadramawt
Hadramawt fell into Sulayhid hands after their capture
of
Aden
Aden in 1162.[107]
By 1063,
Ali
Ali had subjugated Greater Yemen.[108] He then marched toward
Hejaz
Hejaz and occupied Makkah.[109]
Ali
Ali was married to Asma bint Shihab,
who governed
Yemen
Yemen with her husband.[110] The
Khutba
Khutba during Friday
prayers was proclaimed in her husband and her names. No other Arab
woman had this honor since the advent of Islam.[110]
Ali
Ali al-Sulayhi was killed by Najah's sons on his way to
Mecca
Mecca in 1084.
His son Ahmed Al-Mukarram led an army to
Zabid
Zabid and killed 8,000 of its
inhabitants.[111] He later installed the Zurayids to govern Aden.
al-Mukarram, who had been afflicted with facial paralysis resulting
from war injuries, retired in 1087 and handed over power to his wife
Arwa al-Sulayhi.[112] Queen Arwa moved the seat of the Sulayhid
dynasty from
Sana'a
Sana'a to Jibla, a small town in central
Yemen
Yemen near Ibb.
Jibla was strategically near the
Sulayhid dynasty source of wealth,
the agricultural central highlands. It was also within easy reach of
the southern portion of the country, especially Aden. She sent Ismaili
missionaries to India, where a significant Ismail community was formed
that exists to this day.[113] Queen Arwa continued to rule securely
until her death in 1138.[113]
Queen Arwa al-Sulaihi Palace
Arwa al-Sulayhi
Arwa al-Sulayhi is still remembered as a great and much loved
sovereign, as attested in Yemeni historiography, literature, and
popular lore, where she is referred to as Balqis al-sughra ("the
junior queen of Sheba").[114] Although the Sulayhids were Ismaili,
they never tried to impose their beliefs on the public.[115] Shortly
after Queen Arwa's death, the country was split between five competing
petty dynasties along religious lines.[116] The Ayyubid dynasty
overthrew the
Fatimid Caliphate
Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt. A few years after their rise
to power,
Saladin
.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Saladin_(before_A.D._1185;_short).jpg)
Saladin dispatched his brother
Turan Shah to conquer Yemen
in 1174.[117]
Ayyubid conquest (1171–1260)[edit]
Main article: Ayyubid Dynasty
Turan Shah conquered
Zabid
Zabid from the
Mahdids
Mahdids in May 1174, then marched
toward
Aden
Aden in June and captured it from the Zurayids.[118] The
Hamdanid sultans of
Sana'a
Sana'a resisted the Ayyubid in 1175, and the
Ayyubids did not manage to definitely secure
Sana'a
Sana'a until 1189.[119]
The Ayyubid rule was stable in southern and central Yemen, where they
succeeded in eliminating the ministates of that region, while Ismaili
and Zaidi tribesmen continued to hold out in a number of
fortresses.[120]
The Ayyubids failed to capture the Zaydis stronghold in northern
Yemen.[121] In 1191, Zaydis of
Shibam
Shibam Kawkaban rebelled and killed 700
Ayyubid soldiers.[122]
Imam
Imam Abdullah bin Hamza proclaimed the imamate
in 1197 and fought al-Mu'izz Ismail, the Ayyubid Sultan of Yemen. Imam
Abdullah was defeated at first, but was able to conquer
Sana'a
Sana'a and
Dhamar in 1198,[123] and al-Mu'izz Ismail was assassinated in
1202.[124]
Abdullah bin Hamza carried on the struggle against the Ayyubid until
his death in 1217. After his demise, the Zaidi community was split
between two rival imams. The Zaydis were dispersed and a truce was
signed with the Ayyubid in 1219.[125] The Ayyubid army was defeated in
Dhamar in 1226.[125] Ayyubid Sultan Mas'ud Yusuf left for
Mecca
Mecca in
1228, never to return.[126] Other sources suggest that he was forced
to leave for
Egypt
Egypt instead in 1123.[127]
Rasulid
Dynasty
Dynasty (1229–1454)[edit]
Main article: Rasulid dynasty
Al-Qahyra (Cairo) Castle's Garden in Taiz, the capital of
Yemen
Yemen during
the Rasulid's era
The Rasulid
Dynasty
Dynasty was established in 1229 by Umar ibn Rasul, who was
appointed deputy governor by the Ayyubids in 1223. When the last
Ayyubid ruler left
Yemen
Yemen in 1229, Umar stayed in the country as
caretaker. He subsequently declared himself an independent king by
assuming the title "al-Malik Al-Mansur" (the king assisted by
Allah).[127] Umar established the
Rasulid dynasty
Rasulid dynasty on a firm foundation
and expanded its territory to include the area from
Dhofar
Dhofar to
Mecca[128]
Umar first established himself at Zabid, then moved into the
mountainous interior, taking the important highland centre Sana'a.
However, the Rasulid capitals were
Zabid
Zabid and Taiz. He was assassinated
by his nephew in 1249.[126] Omar's son Yousef defeated the faction led
by his father's assassins and crushed several counter-attacks by the
Zaydi imams who still held on in the northern highland. Mainly because
of the victories he scored over his rivals, he assumed the honorific
title "al-Muzaffar" (the victorious).[129]
After the fall of
Baghdad
Baghdad to the
Mongols
Mongols in 1258, al-Muzaffar Yusuf I
appropriated the title of caliph.[129] He chose the city of
Taiz
_(cropped).jpg/550px-Taiz_(15182373707)_(cropped).jpg)
Taiz to
become the political capital of the kingdom because of its strategic
location and proximity to Aden.[130] al-Muzaffar Yusuf I died in 1296,
having reigned for 47 years.[129] When the news of his death reached
the Zaydi imam Al-Mutawakkil al-Mutahhar bin Yahya, he commented,[129]
The greatest king of Yemen, the Muawiyah of the time, has died. His pens used to break our lances and swords to pieces.
A 13th-century slave market in Yemen
The Rasulid state nurtured Yemen's commercial links with
India
.jpg/580px-Renumbered_National_Highways_map_of_India_(Schematic).jpg)
India and the
Far East.[131] They profited greatly by the
Red Sea
Red Sea transit trade via
Aden
Aden and Zabid.[126] The economy also boomed due to the agricultural
development programs instituted by the kings who promoted massive
cultivation of palms.[126] The Rasulid kings enjoyed the support of
the population of
Tihama
Tihama and southern Yemen, while they had to buy the
loyalty of Yemen's restive northern highland tribes.[126]
The Rasulid sultans built numerous Madrasas to solidify the Shafi'i
school of thought, which is still the dominant school of jurisprudence
amongst Yemenis today.[132] Under their rule,
Taiz
Taiz and
Zabid
Zabid became
major international centers of Islamic learning.[133] The kings
themselves were learned men in their own right, who not only had
important libraries, but who also wrote treatises on a wide array of
subjects, ranging from astrology and medicine to agriculture and
genealogy.[130]
The dynasty is regarded as the greatest native Yemeni state since the
fall of pre-Islamic
Himyarite
Himyarite Kingdom.[134] They were of Turkic
descent.[135] They claimed an ancient Yemenite origin to justify their
rule. The Rasulids were not the first dynasty to create a fictitious
genealogy for political purposes, nor were they doing anything out of
the ordinary in the tribal context of Arabia.[136] By claiming descent
from a solid Yemenite tribe, the Rasulids brought
Yemen
Yemen to a vital
sense of unity in an otherwise chaotic regional milieu.[136]
They had a difficult relationship with the Mamluks of
Egypt
Egypt because
the latter considered them a vassal state.[130] Their competition
centered over the
Hejaz
Hejaz and the right to provide kiswa of the Ka'aba
in Mecca.[130] The dynasty became increasingly threatened by
disgruntled family members over the problem of succession, combined by
periodic tribal revolts, as they were locked in a war of attrition
with the Zaydi imams in the northern highlands.[133] During the last
12 years of Rasulid rule, the country was torn between several
contenders for the kingdom. The weakening of the Rasulid provided an
opportunity for the Banu Taher clan to take over and establish
themselves as the new rulers of
Yemen
Yemen in 1454 CE.[132]
Tahiride
Dynasty
Dynasty (1454–1517)[edit]
Main article: Tahirids (Yemen)
The Tahirids were a local clan based in Rada'a. While they were not as
impressive as their predecessors, they were still keen builders. They
built schools, mosques, and irrigation channels, as well as water
cisterns and bridges in Zabid, Aden, Rada'a, and Juban. Their
best-known monument is the Amiriya
Madrasa
Madrasa in Rada' District, which
was built in 1504. The Tahiride were too weak either to contain the
Zaydi imams or to defend themselves against foreign attacks. The
Mamluks of
Egypt
Egypt tried to attach
Yemen
Yemen to
Egypt
Egypt and the Portuguese led
by Afonso de Albuquerque, occupied
Socotra
Socotra and made an unsuccessful
attack on
Aden
Aden in 1513.[137]
The Portuguese posed an immediate threat to the
Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean trade.
The Mamluks of Egypt, therefore, sent an army under the command of
Hussein Al-Kurdi to fight the intruders.[138] The Mamluk sultan of
Egypt
Egypt sailed to
Zabid
Zabid in 1515 and began diplomatic talks with Tahiride
Sultan 'Amir bin Abdulwahab for money that would be needed for jihād
(Arabic: جِـهَـاد, 'struggle') against the Portuguese.
Instead of confronting the Portuguese, the Mamluks, who were running
out of food and water, landed their fleet on the
Yemen
Yemen coastline and
started to harass
Tihama
Tihama villagers for what they needed.[139]
Realizing how rich the Tahiride realm was, they decided to conquer
it.[139] The Mamluk army, with the support of forces loyal to Zaydi
Imam
Imam Al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din, conquered the entire realm of
the Tahiride, but failed to capture
Aden
Aden in 1517. The Mamluk victory
was short-lived. The
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire conquered Egypt, hanging the last
Mamluk Sultan in Cairo.[139] The
Ottomans had not decided to conquer
Yemen
Yemen until 1538. The Zaydi highland tribes emerged as national
heroes[140] by offering a stiff, vigorous resistance to the Turkish
occupation.[141]
Modern history[edit]
See also: Modern history of Yemen
The Zaydis and Ottomans[edit]
See also:
Yemen
Yemen Eyalet
Al Bakiriyya Ottoman Mosque in Sana'a, was built in 1597
The
Ottomans had two fundamental interests to safeguard in Yemen: The
Islamic holy cities of
Mecca
Mecca and Medina, and the trade route with
India
India in spices and textiles—both threatened, and the latter
virtually eclipsed, by the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian
Ocean and the
Red Sea
Red Sea in the early 16th century.[142] Hadım Suleiman
Pasha, The Ottoman governor of Egypt, was ordered to command a fleet
of 90 ships to conquer Yemen. The country was in a state of incessant
anarchy and discord as
Hadım Suleiman Pasha
Hadım Suleiman Pasha described it by
saying:[143]
Yemen
Yemen is a land with no lord, an empty province. It would be not only
possible but easy to capture, and should it be captured, it would be
master of the lands of
India
India and send every year a great amount of
gold and jewels to Constantinople.
Imam
Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din ruled over the northern
highlands including Sana'a, while
Aden
Aden was held by the last Tahiride
Sultan 'Amir ibn Dauod.
Hadım Suleiman Pasha
Hadım Suleiman Pasha stormed
Aden
Aden in 1538,
killing its ruler, and extended Ottoman authority to include
Zabid
Zabid in
1539 and eventually
Tihama
Tihama in its entirety.[144]
Zabid
Zabid became the
administrative headquarters of
Yemen
Yemen Eyalet.[144] The Ottoman
governors did not exercise much control over the highlands. They held
sway mainly in the southern coastal region, particularly around Zabid,
Mocha, and Aden.[145] Of 80,000 soldiers sent to
Yemen
Yemen from Egypt
between 1539 and 1547, only 7,000 survived.[146] The Ottoman
accountant-general in
Egypt
Egypt remarked:[146]
We have seen no foundry like
Yemen
Yemen for our soldiers. Each time we have
sent an expeditionary force there, it has melted away like salt
dissolved in water.
The
Ottomans sent yet another expeditionary force to
Zabid
Zabid in 1547,
while
Imam
Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din was ruling the highlands
independently.
Imam
Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya chose his son
Ali
Ali to succeed
him, a decision that infuriated his other son al-Mutahhar ibn
Yahya.[147]
Al-Mutahhar was lame, so was not qualified for the
imamate.[147] He urged Oais Pasha, the Ottoman colonial governor in
Zabid, to attack his father.[148] Indeed, Ottoman troops supported by
tribal forces loyal to
Imam
Imam al-Mutahhar stormed
Taiz
Taiz and marched north
toward
Sana'a
Sana'a in August 1547. The Turks officially made Imam
al-Mutahhar a
Sanjak-bey with authority over 'Amran.
Imam
Imam al-Mutahhar
assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recaptured Sana'a, but
the Ottomans, led by Özdemir Pasha, forced al-Mutahhar to retreat to
his fortress in Thula.
Özdemir Pasha effectively put
Yemen
Yemen under
Ottoman rule between 1552 and 1560. He was considered a competent
ruler given Yemen's notorious lawlessness, garrisoning the main
cities, building new fortresses, and rendering secure the main
routes.[149] Özdemir died in
Sana'a
Sana'a in 1561, and was succeeded by
Mahmud Pasha.
Unlike Özdemir's brief but able leadership, Mahmud Pasha was
described by other Ottoman officials as a corrupt and unscrupulous
governor. He used his authority to take over a number of castles, some
of which belonged to the former Rasulid kings.[147] Mahmud Pasha
killed a
Sunni
Sunni scholar from Ibb.[150] The Ottoman historian claimed
that this incident was celebrated by the Zaydi
Shia
Shia community in the
northern highlands.[150] Disregarding the delicate balance of power in
Yemen
Yemen by acting tactlessly, he alienated different groups within
Yemeni society, causing them to forget their rivalries and unite
against the Turks.[149] Mahmud Pasha was displaced by Ridvan Pasha in
1564. By 1565,
Yemen
Yemen was split into two provinces, the highlands under
the command of Ridvan Pasha and
Tihama
Tihama under Murad Pasha. Imam
al-Mutahhar launched a propaganda campaign in which he claimed that
prophet Mohammed came to him in a dream and advised him to wage jihad
against the Ottomans.[151]
Al-Mutahhar led the tribes to capture
Sana'a
Sana'a from Ridvan Pasha in 1567. When Murad tried to relieve Sana'a,
highland tribesmen ambushed his unit and slaughtered all of them.[152]
Over 80 battles were fought. The last decisive encounter took place in
Dhamar around 1568, in which Murad Pasha was beheaded and his head
sent to al-Mutahhar in Sana'a.[152][153] By 1568, only
Zabid
Zabid remained
under the possession of the Turks.[153]
Ruins of
Thula
Thula fortress in 'Amran, where al-Mutahhar ibn Yahya
barricaded himself against Ottoman attacks
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Syria, was ordered by
Selim II
Selim II to suppress the Yemeni rebels.[154] However, the Turkish army
in
Egypt
Egypt was reluctant to go to
Yemen
Yemen due to their knowledge of the
hegemony of the northern Yemenis.[154] Mustafa Pasha sent a letter
with two Turkish shawishes hoping to persuade al-Mutahhar to give an
apology and confirm that Mustafa Pasha did not promote any act of
aggression against the Ottoman army, and state that the "ignorant
Arabian" according to the Turks, acted on their own.[155] Imam
al-Mutahhar refused the Ottoman offer. When Mustafa Pasha sent an
expeditionary force under the command of Uthman Pasha, it was defeated
with great casualties.[156] Sultan
Selim II
Selim II was infuriated by
Mustafa's hesitation to go Yemen. He executed a number of sanjak-beys
in
Egypt
Egypt and ordered
Sinan Pasha
Sinan Pasha to lead the entire Turkish army in
Egypt
Egypt to reconquer Yemen.[157]
Sinan Pasha
Sinan Pasha was a prominent Ottoman
general of Albanian origin.[153] He reconquered Aden, Taiz, and Ibb,
and besieged
Shibam
Shibam Kawkaban in 1570 for 7 months. The siege was
lifted once a truce was reached.[158]
Imam
Imam al-Mutahhar was pushed
back, but could not be entirely overcome.[159] After al-Mutahhar's
demise in 1572, the Zaydi community was not united under an imam; the
Turks took advantage of their disunity and conquered Sana'a, Sa'dah,
and
Najran
Najran in 1583.[160]
Imam
Imam al-Nasir Hassan was arrested in 1585 and
exiled to Constantinople, thereby putting an end to the Yemeni
rebellion.[153]
The Zaydi tribesmen in the northern highlands particularly those of
Hashid and Bakil, were ever the Turkish bugbear in all Arabia.[161]
The
Ottomans who justified their presence in
Yemen
Yemen as a triumph for
Islam, accused the Zaydis of being infidels.[162] Hassan Pasha was
appointed governor of
Yemen
Yemen and enjoyed a period of relative peace
from 1585 to 1597. Pupils of al-Mansur al-Qasim suggested he should
claim the immamate and fight the Turks. He declined at first, but the
promotion of the
Hanafi
Hanafi school of jurisprudence at the expense of
Zaydi
Islam
Islam infuriated al-Mansur al-Qasim. He proclaimed the imamate
in September 1597, which was the same year the Ottoman authorities
inaugurated al-Bakiriyya Mosque.[160] By 1608,
Imam
Imam al-Mansur (the
victorious) regained control over the highlands and signed a truce for
10 years with the Ottomans.[163]
Imam
Imam al-Mansur al-Qasim died in 1620.
His son
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad succeeded him and confirmed the truce
with the Ottomans. In 1627, the
Ottomans lost
Aden
Aden and Lahej. 'Abdin
Pasha was ordered to suppress the rebels, but failed, and had to
retreat to Mocha.[160]
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad expelled the
Ottomans from
Sana'a
Sana'a in 1628, only
Zabid
Zabid and Mocha remained under Ottoman
possession.
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad captured
Zabid
Zabid in 1634 and allowed
the
Ottomans to leave Mocha peacefully.[164] The reason behind
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad's success was the possession of firearms by the
tribes and their unity behind him.[165]
Mocha was Yemen's busiest port in the 17th and 18th centuries
In 1632,
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad sent an expeditionary force of 1000 men
to conquer Mecca.[166] The army entered the city in triumph and killed
its governor.[166] The
Ottomans were not ready to lose
Mecca
Mecca after
Yemen, so they sent an army from
Egypt
Egypt to fight the Yemenites.[166]
Seeing that the Turkish army was too numerous to overcome, the Yemeni
army retreated to a valley outside Mecca.[167] Ottoman troops attacked
the Yemenis by hiding at the wells that supplied them with water. This
plan proceeded successfully, causing the Yemenis over 200 casualties,
most from thirst.[167] The tribesmen eventually surrendered and
returned to Yemen.[168]
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad died in 1644. He was
succeeded by Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il, another son of al-Mansur al-Qasim,
who conquered
Yemen
Yemen in its entirety, from
Asir
Asir in the north to Dhofar
in the east.[169][170][171][172] During his reign, and during the
reign of his successor,
Al-Mahdi Ahmad (1676–1681), the imamate
implemented some of the harshest discriminatory laws (ghiyar) against
the Jews of Yemen, which culminated in the expulsion of all Jews
(Exile of Mawza) to a hot and arid region in the
Tihama
Tihama coastal plain.
The Qasimid state was the strongest Zaydi state to ever exist.
During that period,
Yemen
Yemen was the sole coffee producer in the
world.[173] The country established diplomatic relations with the
Safavid dynasty
Safavid dynasty of Persia,
Ottomans of Hejaz,
Mughal Empire
Mughal Empire in India,
and Ethiopia, as well.
Fasilides
Fasilides of
Ethiopia
Ethiopia sent three diplomatic
missions to Yemen, but the relations did not develop into political
alliance, as
Fasilides
Fasilides had hoped, due to the rise of powerful
feudalists in his country.[174] In the first half of the 18th century,
the Europeans broke Yemen's monopoly on coffee by smuggling coffee
trees and cultivating them in their own colonies in the East Indies,
East Africa, the West Indies, and Latin America.[175] The imamate did
not follow a cohesive mechanism for succession, and family quarrels
and tribal insubordination led to the political decline of the Qasimi
dynasty in the 18th century.[176] In 1728 or 1731, the chief
representative of
Lahej
Lahej declared himself an independent sultan in
defiance of the Qasimid dynasty and conquered Aden, thus establishing
the Sultanate of Lahej. The rising power of the fervently Islamist
Wahhabi
Wahhabi movement on the
Arabian Peninsula
Arabian Peninsula cost the Zaidi state its
coastal possessions after 1803. The imam was able to regain them
temporarily in 1818, but new intervention by the Ottoman viceroy of
Egypt
Egypt in 1833 again wrested the coast from the ruler in Sana'a. After
1835, the imamate changed hands with great frequency and some imams
were assassinated. After 1849, the Zaidi polity descended into chaos
that lasted for decades.[177]
Great Britain and the Nine Regions[edit]
See also:
Aden Protectorate
Aden Protectorate and Sultanate of Lahej
Saint Joseph church in
Aden
Aden was built by the British in 1850 and is
currently abandoned
The British were looking for a coal depot to service their steamers en
route to India. It took 700 tons of coal for a round-trip from
Suez
Suez to
Bombay. East
India
India Company officials decided on Aden. The British
Empire tried to reach an agreement with the Zaydi imam of Sana'a,
permitting them a foothold in Mocha, and when unable to secure their
position, they extracted a similar agreement from the Sultan of Lahej,
enabling them to consolidate a position in Aden.[178] An incident
played into British hands when, while passing
Aden
Aden for trading
purposes, one of their sailing ships sank and
Arab
Arab tribesmen boarded
it and plundered its contents. The British
India
India government dispatched
a warship under the command of Captain Stafford Bettesworth Haines to
demand compensation.[178]
Haines bombarded
Aden
Aden from his warship in January 1839. The ruler of
Lahej, who was in
Aden
Aden at the time, ordered his guards to defend the
port, but they failed in the face of overwhelming military and naval
power. The British managed to occupy
Aden
Aden and agreed to compensate the
sultan with an annual payment of 6000 riyals.[178] The British evicted
the Sultan of
Lahej
Lahej from
Aden
Aden and forced him to accept their
"protection."[178] In November 1839, 5000 tribesmen tried to retake
the town, but were repulsed and 200 were killed. The British realised
that Aden's prosperity depended on their relations with the
neighbouring tribes, which required that they rest on a firm and
satisfactory basis.[179]
The British government concluded "protection and friendship" treaties
with nine tribes surrounding Aden, whereas they would remain
independent from British interference in their affairs as long as they
do not conclude treaties with foreigners (non-
Arab
Arab colonial
powers).[180]
Aden
Aden was declared a free zone in 1850. With emigrants
from India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia,
Aden
Aden grew into a world
city. In 1850, only 980
Arabs
Arabs were registered as original inhabitants
of the city.[181] The English presence in
Aden
Aden put them at odds with
the Ottomans. The Turks asserted to the British that they held
sovereignty over the whole of Arabia, including
Yemen
Yemen as successor of
Mohammed and the chief of the universal caliphate.[182]
Ottoman return[edit]
See also:
Yemen
Yemen Vilayet
The Ottoman
Grand Vizier
Grand Vizier and
Wāli
Wāli of
Yemen
Yemen Ahmed Muhtar Pasha
The
Ottomans were concerned about the British expansion from
India
India to
the
Red Sea
Red Sea and Arabia. They returned to the
Tihama
Tihama in 1849 after an
absence of two centuries.[183] Rivalries and disturbances continued
among the Zaydi imams, between them and their deputies, with the
ulema, with the heads of tribes, as well as with those who belonged to
other sects. Some citizens of
Sana'a
Sana'a were desperate to return law and
order to
Yemen
Yemen and asked the Ottoman Pasha in
Tihama
Tihama to pacify the
country.[184] Yemeni merchants knew that the return of the Ottomans
would improve their trade, for the
Ottomans would become their
customers.[185] An Ottoman expedition force tried to capture Sana'a,
but was defeated and had to evacuate the highlands.[186] The Opening
of the
Suez
Suez Canal in 1869, strengthened the Ottoman decision to remain
in Yemen.[187] In 1872, military forces were dispatched from
Constantinople
Constantinople and moved beyond the Ottoman stronghold in the lowlands
(Tihama) to conquer Sana'a. By 1873, the
Ottomans succeeded in
conquering the northern highlands.
Sana'a
Sana'a became the administrative
capital of
Yemen
Yemen Vilayet.
The
Ottomans learned from their previous experience and worked on the
disempowerment of local lords in the highland regions. They even
attempted to secularize the Yemeni society, while
Yemenite Jews
Yemenite Jews came
to perceive themselves in Yemeni nationalist terms.[188] The Ottomans
appeased the tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs and
appointing them to administrative posts. They introduced a series of
reforms to enhance the country's economic welfare. However, corruption
was widespread in the Ottoman administration in Yemen. This was
because only the worst of the officials were appointed because those
who could avoid serving in
Yemen
Yemen did so.[189] The
Ottomans had
reasserted control over the highlands for temporary duration.[183] The
so-called
Tanzimat
Tanzimat reforms were considered heretic by the Zaydi
tribes. In 1876, the
Hashid and
Bakil tribes rebelled against the
Ottomans; the Turks had to appease them with gifts to end the
uprising.[190]
The tribal chiefs were difficult to appease and an endless cycle of
violence curbed Ottoman efforts to pacify the land. Ahmed Izzet Pasha
proposed that the Ottoman army evacuate the highlands and confine
itself to Tihama, and not unnecessarily burden itself with continuing
military operation against the Zaydi tribes.[189] The hit-and-run
tactics of the northern highlands tribesmen wore out the Ottoman
military. They resented the Turkish
Tanzimat
Tanzimat and defied all attempts
to impose a central government upon them.[187] The northern tribes
united under the leadership of the House of Hamidaddin in 1890. Imam
Yahya Hamidaddin led a rebellion against the Turks in 1904; the rebels
disrupted the Ottoman ability to govern.[191] The revolts between 1904
and 1911 were especially damaging to the Ottomans, costing them as
many as 10,000 soldiers and as much as 500,000 pounds per year.[192]
The
Ottomans signed a treaty with imam Yahya Hamidaddin in 1911. Under
the treaty,
Imam
Imam Yahya was recognized as an autonomous leader of the
Zaydi northern highlands. The
Ottomans continued to rule
Shafi'i
Shafi'i areas
in the mid-south until their departure in 1918.
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen[edit]
Main article: Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen
Imam
Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din's house in Sana'a
Imam
Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din al-Mutawakkil was ruling the northern
highlands independently from 1911. After the Ottoman departure in
1918, he sought to recapture the lands of his Qasimid ancestors. He
dreamed of
Greater Yemen
Greater Yemen stretching from
Asir
Asir to Dhofar. These schemes
brought him into conflict with the de facto rulers in the territories
claimed, namely the Idrsids, Ibn Saud, and the British government in
Aden.[193] The Zaydi imam did not recognize the Anglo-Ottoman border
agreement of 1905 on the grounds that it was made between two foreign
powers occupying Yemen.[194] The border treaty effectively divided
Yemen
Yemen into north and south.[195] In 1915, the British signed a treaty
with the Idrsids guaranteeing their security and independence if they
would fight against the Turks.[196] In 1919,
Imam
Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din
moved southward to "liberate" the nine British protectorates. The
British responded by moving quickly towards
Tihama
Tihama and occupying
al-Hudaydah. Then they handed it over to their Idrisi allies.[197]
Imam
Imam Yahya attacked the southern protectorates again in 1922. The
British bombed Yahya's tribal forces using aircraft to which the
tribes had no effective counter.[198]
In 1925,
Imam
Imam Yahya captured al-Hudaydah from the Idrsids.[199] He
continued to follow and attack the Idrsids until
Asir
Asir fell under the
control of the imam's forces, forcing the Idrisi to request an
agreement that would enable them to administer the region in the name
of the imam.[199]
Imam
Imam Yahya refused the offer on the grounds that the
Idrisis were of a Moroccan descent. According to
Imam
Imam Yahya, the
Idrisis, along with the British, were nothing but recent intruders and
should be driven out of
Yemen
Yemen permanently.[200] In 1927,
Imam
Imam Yahya's
forces were 50 km away from Aden, Taiz, and Ibb, and were bombed
by the British for five days; the imam had to pull back.[198] Small
Bedouin
Bedouin forces, mainly from the
Madh'hij confederation of Marib,
attacked Shabwah but were bombed by the British and had to retreat.
The
Italian Empire
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Italy_(1861-1946).svg.png)
Italian Empire was the first to recognize
Imam
Imam Yahya as the King
of
Yemen
Yemen in 1926. This created a great deal of anxiety for the
British, who interpreted it as recognition of
Imam
Imam Yahya's claim to
sovereignty over Greater Yemen, which included the
Aden
Aden protectorate
and Asir.[201] The idrisis turned to
Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud seeking his protection
from Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din. However, in 1932, the Idrisis broke
their accord with
Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud and went back to
Imam
Imam Yahya seeking help
against
Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud himself, who had begun liquidating their authority
and expressed his desire to annex those territories into his own Saudi
domain.[202][203]
Imam
Imam Yahya demanded the return of all Idrisi
dominion.[202] That same year, a group of Hejazi liberals fled to
Yemen
Yemen and plotted to expel
Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud from the former Hashemite Kingdom
of Hejaz, which had been conquered by the Saudis seven years earlier.
Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud appealed to Britain for aid.[204] The British government sent
arms and aeroplanes .[204] The British were anxious that Ibn Saud's
financial difficulties may encourage the
Italian Empire
Italian Empire to bail him
out.[202]
Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud suppressed the Asiri rebellion in 1933, after which
the Idrsids fled to Sana'a.[204] Negotiations between the
Imam
Imam Yahya
Hamid ed-Din and
Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud proved fruitless. After a military
confrontation,
Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud announced a ceasefire in May 1934.[204] Imam
Yahya agreed to release Saudi hostages and the surrender of the
Idrisis to Saudi custody.
Imam
Imam Yahya ceded the three provinces of
Najran, Asir, and Jazan for 20 years.[205] and signed another treaty
with the British government in 1934. The imam recognized the British
sovereignty over
Aden protectorate
Aden protectorate for 40 years.[206] Out of fear for
Hudaydah, Yahya did submit to these demands. According to Bernard
Reich, Professor of Political Science and International Affairs at
George Washington University, Yahya could have done better by
reorganizing the Zaydi tribes of the northern highlands as his
ancestors did against the Turks and British intruders and turn the
lands they captured into another graveyard.[207]
Colonial Aden[edit]
British colony of Aden:
Queen Elizabeth II
Queen Elizabeth II stamp, 1953
Queen Elizabeth II
Queen Elizabeth II holding a sword, prepared to knight subjects in
Aden
Aden in 1954
Starting in 1890, hundreds of Yemeni people from Hajz, Al-Baetha, and
Taiz
Taiz migrated to
Aden
Aden to work at ports, and as laborers. This helped
the population of
Aden
Aden once again become predominantly
Arab
Arab after,
having been declared a free zone, it had become mostly foreigners.
During World War II,
Aden
Aden had increasing economic growth and became
the second-busiest port in the world after New York City.[208] After
the rise of labour unions, a rift was apparent between the sectors of
workers and the first signs of resistance to the occupation started in
1943.[208] Muhammad
Ali
Ali Luqman founded the first
Arabic
Arabic club and
school in Aden, and was the first to start working towards a
union.[209]
The Colony of
Aden
Aden was divided into an eastern colony and a western
colony. Those were further divided into 23 sultanates and emirates,
and several independent tribes that had no relationships with the
sultanates. The deal between the sultanates and Britain detailed
protection and complete control of foreign relations by the British.
The Sultanate of
Lahej
Lahej was the only one in which the sultan was
referred to as His Highness.[210] The Federation of
South Arabia
South Arabia was
created by the British to counter
Arab nationalism
Arab nationalism by giving more
freedom to the rulers of the nations.[211]
The
North Yemen
North Yemen Civil War inspired many in the south to rise against
the British rule. The National Liberation Front (NLO) of
Yemen
Yemen was
formed with the leadership of Qahtan Muhammad Al-Shaabi. The NLO hoped
to destroy all the sultanates and eventually unite with the
Yemen
Yemen Arab
Republic. Most of the support for the NLO came from
Radfan
Radfan and Yafa,
so the British launched Operation Nutcracker, which completely burned
Radfan
Radfan in January 1964.[212]
Two states[edit]
Main articles:
North Yemen
North Yemen and South Yemen
Egyptian military intervention in North Yemen, 1962
North Yemen
North Yemen (in orange) and
Marxist
Marxist
South Yemen
South Yemen (in blue) before 1990
Arab nationalism
Arab nationalism made an impact in some circles who opposed the lack
of modernization efforts in the Mutawakkilite monarchy. This became
apparent when
Imam
Imam
Ahmad bin Yahya
Ahmad bin Yahya died in 1962. He was succeeded by
his son, but army officers attempted to seize power, sparking the
North Yemen
North Yemen Civil War.[213] The Hamidaddin royalists were supported by
Saudi Arabia, Britain, and
Jordan
Jordan (mostly with weapons and financial
aid, but also with small military forces), whilst the military rebels
were backed by Egypt.
Egypt
Egypt provided the rebels with weapons and
financial assistance, but also sent a large military force to
participate in the fighting.
Israel
Israel covertly supplied weapons to the
royalists to keep the Egyptian military busy in
Yemen
Yemen and make Nasser
less likely to initiate a conflict in the Sinai. After six years of
civil war, the military rebels were victorious (February 1968) and
formed the
Yemen
Yemen
Arab
Arab Republic.[214]
The revolution in the north coincided with the
Aden
Aden Emergency, which
hastened the end of British rule in the south. On 30 November 1967,
the state of
South Yemen
South Yemen was formed, comprising
Aden
Aden and the former
Protectorate of South Arabia. This socialist state was later
officially known as the
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen and a
programme of nationalisation was begun.[215]
British Army's counter-insurgency campaign in the British controlled territories of South Arabia, 1967
Relations between the two Yemeni states fluctuated between peaceful
and hostile. The South was supported by the Eastern bloc. The North,
however, was not able to get the same connections. In 1972, the two
states fought a war. The war was resolved with a ceasefire and
negotiations brokered by the
Arab
Arab League, where it was declared that
unification would eventually occur. In 1978,
Ali
Ali Abdallah Saleh was
named as president of the
Yemen
Yemen
Arab
Arab Republic.[216] After the war, the
North complained about the South's help from foreign countries. This
included Saudi Arabia.[217]
In 1979, fresh fighting between the two states resumed and efforts
were renewed to bring about unification.[216]
Thousands were killed in 1986 in the
South Yemen
South Yemen Civil War. President
Ali
Ali Nasser Muhammad fled to the north and was later sentenced to death
for treason. A new government formed.[216]
Unification and civil war[edit]
Main article: Yemeni unification
In 1990, the two governments reached a full agreement on the joint
governing of Yemen, and the countries were merged on 22 May 1990, with
Saleh as President.[216] The President of South Yemen,
Ali
Ali Salim
al-Beidh, became Vice President.[216] A unified parliament was formed
and a unity constitution was agreed upon.[216] In the 1993
parliamentary election, the first held after unification, the General
People's Congress won 122 of 301 seats.[218]:309
After the invasion of
Kuwait
Kuwait crisis in 1990, Yemen's president opposed
military intervention from non-
Arab
Arab states.[219] As a member of the
United Nations
United Nations Security Council for 1990 and 1991,
Yemen
Yemen abstained on
a number of UNSC resolutions concerning
Iraq
Iraq and Kuwait[220] and voted
against the "...use of force resolution." The vote outraged the
U.S.[221]
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 to
punish
Yemen
Yemen for its opposition to the intervention.[222]
Following food riots in major towns in 1992, a new coalition
government made up of the ruling parties from both the former Yemeni
states was formed in 1993. However, Vice President al-Beidh withdrew
to
Aden
Aden in August 1993 and said he would not return to the government
until his grievances were addressed. These included northern violence
against his Yemeni Socialist Party, as well as the economic
marginalization of the south.[223] Negotiations to end the political
deadlock dragged on into 1994. The government of
Prime Minister
Prime Minister Haydar
Abu Bakr Al-Attas became ineffective due to political infighting[224]
An accord between northern and southern leaders was signed in Amman,
Jordan
Jordan on 20 February 1994, but this could not stop the civil
war.[citation needed] During these tensions, both the northern and
southern armies (which had never integrated) gathered on their
respective frontiers.[225] The May – July 1994 civil war in Yemen
resulted in the defeat of the southern armed forces and the flight
into exile of many
Yemeni Socialist Party
Yemeni Socialist Party leaders and other southern
secessionists.[citation needed]
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia actively aided the south
during the 1994 civil war.[226]
Contemporary Yemen[edit]
Prayers during
Ramadan
Ramadan in Sana'a
"
Sana'a
Sana'a risks becoming the first capital in the world to run out of a
viable water supply as Yemen's streams and natural aquifers run dry,"
says The Guardian.[227]
Saudi-led air strike on Sana'a, 12 June 2015:
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is
operating without a UN mandate
Ali Abdullah Saleh
Ali Abdullah Saleh became Yemen's first directly elected president in
the 1999 presidential election, winning 96.2% of the vote.[218]:310
The only other candidate, Najeeb Qahtan Al-Sha'abi, was the son of
Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi, a former president of South Yemen. Though a
member of Saleh's General People's Congress (GPC) party, Najeeb ran as
an independent.[228]
In October 2000, 17 U.S. personnel died after a suicide attack on the
U.S. naval vessel USS Cole in Aden, which was subsequently blamed on
al-Qaeda. After the
September 11 attacks
September 11 attacks on the United States,
President Saleh assured U.S. President
George W. Bush
George W. Bush that
Yemen
Yemen was a
partner in his War on Terror. In 2001, violence surrounded a
referendum, which apparently supported extending Saleh's rule and
powers.
The
Shia
Shia insurgency in
Yemen
Yemen began in June 2004 when dissident cleric
Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi, head of the Zaidi
Shia
Shia sect, launched an
uprising against the Yemeni government. The Yemeni government alleged
that the
Houthis
Houthis were seeking to overthrow it and to implement
Shī'ite religious law. The rebels counter that they are "defending
their community against discrimination" and government
aggression.[229]
In 2005, at least 36 people were killed in clashes across the country
between police and protesters over rising fuel prices.
In the 2006 presidential election, held on 20 September, Saleh won
with 77.2% of the vote. His main rival, Faisal bin Shamlan, received
21.8%.[230][231] Saleh was sworn in for another term on 27
September.[232]
A suicide bomber killed eight Spanish tourists and two Yemenis in the
province of
Marib
Marib in July 2007. A series of bomb attacks occurred on
police, official, diplomatic, foreign business, and tourism targets in
2008. Car bombings outside the U.S. embassy in
Sana'a
Sana'a killed 18
people, including six of the assailants in September 2008. In 2008, an
opposition rally in
Sana'a
Sana'a demanding electoral reform was met with
police gunfire.
Al Qaeda[edit]
In January 2009, the Saudi Arabian and Yemeni al-Qaeda branches merged
to form Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, which is based in Yemen,
and many of its members were Saudi nationals who had been released
from Guantanamo Bay.[233] Saleh released 176 al-Qaeda suspects on
condition of good behaviour, but terrorist activities continued.
The Yemeni army launched a fresh offensive against the
Shia
Shia insurgents
in 2009, assisted by Saudi forces. Tens of thousands of people were
displaced by the fighting. A new ceasefire was agreed upon in February
2010. However, by the end of the year,
Yemen
Yemen claimed that 3,000
soldiers had been killed in renewed fighting. The
Shia
Shia rebels accused
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia of providing support to salafi groups to suppress Zaidism
in Yemen.[234]
Some news reports have suggested that, on orders from U.S. President
Barack Obama, U.S. warplanes fired cruise missiles at what officials
in Washington claimed were Al Qaeda training camps in the provinces of
Sana'a
Sana'a and
Abyan
Abyan on 17 December 2009.[235] Instead of hitting Al-Qaeda
operatives, it hit a village, killing 55 civilians.[236] Officials in
Yemen
Yemen said that the attacks claimed the lives of more than 60
civilians, 28 of them children. Another airstrike was carried out on
24 December.[237]
The U.S. launched a series of drone attacks in
Yemen
Yemen to curb a
perceived growing terror threat due to political chaos in Yemen.[238]
Since December 2009, U.S. strikes in
Yemen
Yemen have been carried out by
the U.S. military with intelligence support from the CIA.[239] The
drone strikes are protested by human-rights groups who say they kill
innocent civilians, and that the U.S. military and CIA drone strikes
lack sufficient congressional oversight, including the choice of human
targets suspected of being threats to America.[240] Controversy over
U.S. policy for drone attacks mushroomed after a September 2011 drone
strike in
Yemen
Yemen killed
Anwar al-Awlaki
Anwar al-Awlaki and Samir Khan, both U.S.
citizens.[241] Another drone strike in October 2011 killed Anwar's
teenaged son, Abdulrahman al-Awlaki.
In 2010, the Obama administration policy allowed targeting of people
whose names are not known. The U.S. government increased military aid
to $140 million in 2010.[242] U.S. drone strikes continued after
the ousting of President Saleh.[243]
As of 2015[update], Shi'a
Houthis
Houthis are fighting against the Islamic
State,[244] Al Qaeda,[245] and Saudi Arabia.[246] The U.S. supports
the Saudi-led military intervention in
Yemen
Yemen against the Houthis,[247]
but many in US SOCOM reportedly favor Houthis, as they have been an
effective force to roll back al-Qaeda and recently ISIL in Yemen.[248]
The Guardian
The Guardian reported that "The only groups poised to benefit from the
war dragging on are the jihadis of Islamic State (ISIL) and al-Qaida
in the
Arabian Peninsula
Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), the latter's most powerful franchise,
who are likely to gain influence amid the chaos. ISIL has claimed
recent, bloody suicide bombings in Houthi mosques and Sana’a when it
once had no known presence in the country, while AQAP has continued to
seize territory in eastern
Yemen
Yemen unhindered by American drone
strikes."[249] In February 2016 Al-Qaeda forces and Saudi-led
coalition forces were both seen fighting Houthi rebels in the same
battle.[250]
Revolution and aftermath[edit]
Main articles: 2011 Yemeni revolution, 2014–15 Yemeni coup d'état,
Yemeni civil war (2015–present), Saudi Arabian-led intervention in
Yemen, and Famine in Yemen
Tens of thousands of protesters marching to
Sana'a
Sana'a University, joined
for the first time by opposition parties, during the 2011–2012
Yemeni revolution
Controlled by
Houthis
Houthis and Saleh loyalists
Controlled by Hadi loyalists
Controlled by al-Qaeda and Islamic State of
Iraq
Iraq and the
Levant-affiliated Ansar al-Sharia
Saudi-led air strike on Sana'a, 12 June 2015:
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is
operating without a UN mandate
The
2011 Yemeni revolution
2011 Yemeni revolution followed other
Arab Spring
.jpg/600px-Tunisia_Unrest_-_VOA_-_Tunis_14_Jan_2011_(2).jpg)
Arab Spring mass protests in
early 2011. The uprising was initially against unemployment, economic
conditions, and corruption, as well as against the government's
proposals to modify the constitution of
Yemen
Yemen so that Saleh's son
could inherit the presidency.
In March 2011, police snipers opened fire on the prodemocracy camp in
Sana'a, killing more than 50 people. In May, dozens were killed in
clashes between troops and tribal fighters in Sana'a. By this point,
Saleh began to lose international support. In October 2011, Yemeni
human rights activist
Tawakul Karman
.jpg/440px-Tawakkul_Karman_(2011).jpg)
Tawakul Karman won the Nobel Peace Prize, and
the
UN Security Council
UN Security Council condemned the violence and called for a
transfer of power. On 23 November 2011, Saleh flew to Riyadh, in
neighbouring Saudi Arabia, to sign the
Gulf Co-operation Council
Gulf Co-operation Council plan
for political transition, which he had previously spurned. Upon
signing the document, he agreed to legally transfer the office and
powers of the presidency to his deputy, Vice President Abdrabbuh
Mansur Hadi.
Hadi took office for a two-year term upon winning the uncontested
presidential elections in February 2012.[251] A unity government –
including a prime minister from the opposition – was formed. Al-Hadi
will oversee the drafting of a new constitution, followed by
parliamentary and presidential elections in 2014. Saleh returned in
February 2012. In the face of objections from thousands of street
protesters, parliament granted him full immunity from prosecution.
Saleh's son, General Ahmed
Ali
Ali Abdullah Saleh, continues to exercise a
strong hold on sections of the military and security forces.
AQAP claimed responsibility for a February 2012 suicide attack on the
presidential palace that killed 26 Republican Guards on the day that
President Hadi was sworn in. AQAP was also behind a suicide bombing
that killed 96 soldiers in
Sana'a
Sana'a three months later. In September
2012, a car bomb attack in
Sana'a
Sana'a killed 11 people, a day after a
local al-Qaeda leader
Said al-Shihri
Said al-Shihri was reported killed in the south.
By 2012, there has been a "small contingent of U.S. special-operations
troops" – in addition to CIA and "unofficially acknowledged" U.S.
military presence – in response to increasing terror attacks by AQAP
on Yemeni citizens.[252] Many analysts have pointed out the former
Yemeni government role in cultivating terrorist activity in the
country.[253] Following the election of new president Abdrabbuh Mansur
Hadi, the Yemeni military was able to push Ansar al-
Sharia
.jpg/478px-End_Islamophobia,_Silent_Protest_at_Union_Station,_Washington_DC_(33348748371).jpg)
Sharia back and
recapture the Shabwah Governorate.
The central government in
Sana'a
Sana'a remained weak, staving off challenges
from southern separatists and
Shia
Shia rebels as well as AQAP. The Shia
insurgency intensified after Hadi took power, escalating in September
2014 as anti-government forces led by
Abdul-Malik al-Houthi swept into
the capital and forced Hadi to agree to a "unity" government.[254] The
Houthis
Houthis then refused to participate in the government,[255] although
they continued to apply pressure on Hadi and his ministers, even
shelling the president's private residence and placing him under house
arrest,[256] until the government's mass resignation in January
2015.[257] The following month, the
Houthis
Houthis dissolved parliament and
declared that a Revolutionary Committee under Mohammed
Ali
Ali al-Houthi
was the interim authority in Yemen. Abdul-Malik al-Houthi, a cousin of
the new acting president, called the takeover a "glorious revolution."
However, the "constitutional declaration" of 6 February 2015 was
widely rejected by opposition politicians and foreign governments,
including the United Nations.[30]
Hadi managed to flee from
Sana'a
Sana'a to Aden, his hometown and stronghold
in the south, on 21 February. He promptly gave a televised speech
rescinding his resignation, condemning the coup, and calling for
recognition as the constitutional president of Yemen.[258] The
following month, Hadi declared
Aden
Aden Yemen's "temporary"
capital.[259][260] The Houthis, however, rebuffed an initiative by the
Gulf Cooperation Council
Gulf Cooperation Council and continued to move south toward Aden. All
U.S. personnel were evacuated and President Hadi was forced to flee
the country to Saudi Arabia. On 26 March,
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia announced
operation al-Hazm Storm and began airstrikes and announced its
intentions to lead a military coalition against the Houthis, whom they
claimed were being aided by Iran, and began a force buildup along the
Yemeni border. The coalition included the United
Arab
Arab Emirates,
Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Jordan, Morocco, Sudan, Egypt, and Pakistan.
The United States announced that it was assisting with intelligence,
targeting, and logistics.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia and
Egypt
Egypt would not rule out
ground operations. After Hadi troops took control of
Aden
Aden from
Houthis, jihadist groups are active in the city, and some of terrorist
incidents were linked to it such as Missionaries of Charity attack in
Aden
Aden in 4 March 2016.
Geography[edit]
Main article: Geography of Yemen
A Haraaz landscape, Yemen
A topographic map of Yemen
Mountains of northern Yemen
Yemen
Yemen is in Western Asia, in the southern half of the Arabian
Peninsula, bordering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea.
It lies south of
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia and west of Oman, between latitudes 12
and 19°N and longitudes 42 and 55°E.
Yemen
Yemen is at 15°N 48°E /
15°N 48°E / 15; 48.
Yemen
Yemen is 527,970 km2
(203,850 sq mi) in size.
A number of
Red Sea
Red Sea islands, including the Hanish Islands, Kamaran,
and Perim, as well as
Socotra
Socotra in the Arabian Sea, belong to Yemen.
Many of the islands are volcanic; for example Jabal al-Tair had a
volcanic eruption in 2007 and before that in 1883.
Yemen
Yemen is a
transcontinental country.
Regions and climate[edit]
A water reservoir in Haraz, Yemen
Yemen
Yemen can be divided geographically into four main regions: the
coastal plains in the west, the western highlands, the eastern
highlands, and the
Rub al Khali
Rub al Khali in the east. The Ṫihāmah (Arabic:
تِـهَـامَـة, "hot lands" or "hot earth") form a very
arid and flat coastal plain along Yemen's entire
Red Sea
Red Sea coastline.
Despite the aridity, the presence of many lagoons makes this region
very marshy and a suitable breeding ground for malaria mosquitos.
Extensive crescent-shaped sand dunes are present. The evaporation in
the
Tihamah
Tihamah is so great that streams from the highlands never reach
the sea, but they do contribute to extensive groundwater reserves.
Today, these are heavily exploited for agricultural use. Near the
village of Madar about 50 km (30 mi) north of Sana'a,
dinosaur footprints were found, indicating that the area was once a
muddy flat.
The
Tihamah
Tihamah ends abruptly at the escarpment of the western highlands.
This area, now heavily terraced to meet the demand for food, receives
the highest rainfall in Arabia, rapidly increasing from 100 mm
(3.9 in) per year to about 760 mm (29.9 in) in
Taiz
Taiz and
over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in Ibb.
Temperatures are hot in the day, but fall dramatically at night.
Perennial streams occur in the highlands, but these never reach the
sea because of high evaporation in the Tihamah.
The central highlands are an extensive high plateau over 2,000 m
(6,562 ft) in elevation. This area is drier than the western
highlands because of rain-shadow influences, but still receives
sufficient rain in wet years for extensive cropping. Water storage
allows for irrigation and the growing of wheat and barley.
Sana'a
Sana'a is
in this region. The highest point in
Yemen
Yemen is Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb,
at 3,666 m (12,028 ft).
Yemen's portion of the
Rub al Khali
Rub al Khali desert in the east is much lower,
generally below 1,000 m (3,281 ft), and receives almost no
rain. It is populated only by
Bedouin
Bedouin herders of camels. The growing
scarcity of water is a source of increasing international concern. See
Water supply and sanitation in Yemen.
Biodiversity[edit]
Main article: Wildlife of Yemen
Dracaena cinnabari
Dracaena cinnabari at
Socotra
Socotra Island
The flora of
Yemen
Yemen is a mixture of the tropical African, Sudanian
plant geographical region and the Saharo-Arabian region. The Sudanian
element—characterized by relatively high rainfall—dominates the
western mountains and parts of the highland plains. The Saharo-Arabian
element dominates in the coastal plains, eastern mountain, and the
eastern and northern desert plains. A high percentage of
Yemen
Yemen plants
belong to tropical African plants of Sudanian regions. Among the
Sudanian element species, the following may be mentioned:
Ficus
Ficus spp.,
Acacia mellifera, Grewia villosa,
Commiphora
Commiphora spp., Rosa abyssinica,
Cadaba
_flower_in_Hyderabad,_AP_W_IMG_7546.jpg/440px-Indian_Cadaba_(Cadaba_fruticosa)_flower_in_Hyderabad,_AP_W_IMG_7546.jpg)
Cadaba farinosa and others.[261]
Among the Saharo-Arabian species, these may be mentioned: Panicum
turgidum, Aerva javanica,
Zygophyllum
Zygophyllum simplex,
Fagonia
Fagonia indica, Salsola
spp., Acacia tortilis, A. hamulos, A. ehrenbergiana, Phoenix
dactylifera, Hyphaene thebaica, Capparis decidua, Salvadora persica,
Balanites aegyptiaca, and many others. Many of the Saharo-Arabian
species are endemic to the extensive sandy coastal plain (the
Tihamah).[262]
The characteristic genera of the Irano-Turanian in the eastern and
northern east of the country are:
Calligonum
Calligonum spp., Cymbopogon
jwarancusa, and
Tamarix
Tamarix spp. and of the Mediterranean regions are:
Teucrium, Lavandula, Juniperus, Brassica, and Diplotaxis spp.
Politics[edit]
Main article: Politics of Yemen
The Yemeni government has been driven in two since 2014, when a
Shi'ite group known as the
Houthis
Houthis seized control of the capital
Sana'a. After months of tense coexistence, the
Houthis
Houthis made a
constitutional declaration in early 2015 that placed them in de facto
control of the government. President
Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi
Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi fled the
capital to the southern city of Aden, former capital of South Yemen,
and eventually evacuated to Saudi Arabia. With the support of the
Saudis and other Gulf states, Hadi remains the official leader of a
provisional government based in Aden.[263] The
Houthis
Houthis have struggled
to achieve international legitimacy, with most countries continuing to
recognize Hadi as Yemen's president, despite the formation of a
"national salvation" government in 2016 without the cooperation of the
Hadi administration.[264]
De jure,
Yemen
Yemen is a republic with a bicameral legislature. Under the
1991 constitution, an elected President, an elected 301-seat Assembly
of Representatives, and an appointed 111-member
Shura
Shura Council share
power. The President is the head of state, and the
Prime Minister
Prime Minister is
the head of government. In Sana'a, a
Supreme Political Council
.jpg/440px-Supreme_Political_Council_(Yemen).jpg)
Supreme Political Council (not
recognized internationally) forms the government.
The 1991 constitution provides that the president be elected by
popular vote from at least two candidates endorsed by at least 15
members of the Parliament. The prime minister, in turn, is appointed
by the president and must be approved by two-thirds of the Parliament.
The presidential term of office is seven years, and the parliamentary
term of elected office is six years.
Suffrage
Suffrage is universal for people
age 18 and older, but only Muslims may hold elected office.[265]
President
Ali Abdullah Saleh
Ali Abdullah Saleh became the first elected president in
reunified
Yemen
Yemen in 1999 (though he had been president of unified Yemen
since 1990 and president of
North Yemen
North Yemen since 1978). He was re-elected
to office in September 2006. Saleh's victory was marked by an election
that international observers judged was "partly free," though the
election was accompanied by violence, violations of press freedoms,
and allegations of fraud.[266] Parliamentary elections were held in
April 2003, and the General People's Congress maintained an absolute
majority. Saleh remained almost uncontested in his seat of power until
2011, when local frustration at his refusal to hold another round of
elections, as combined with the impact of the 2011
Arab
Arab Spring,
resulted in mass protests.[251] In 2012, he was forced to resign from
power, though he remained an important actor in Yemeni politics,
allying with the
Houthis
Houthis during their takeover in the mid-2010s.[267]
The constitution calls for an independent judiciary. The former
northern and southern legal codes have been unified. The legal system
includes separate commercial courts and a Supreme Court based in
Sana'a.
Sharia
Sharia is the main source of laws, with many court cases being
debated according to the religious basis of law and many judges being
religious scholars as well as legal authorities. The Prison Authority
Organization Act, Republican decree no. 48 (1981), and Prison Act
regulations, provide the legal framework for management of the
country's prison system.[268]
Foreign relations[edit]
Main article: Foreign relations of Yemen
Former Yemeni President
Ali Abdullah Saleh
Ali Abdullah Saleh at the Pentagon, 8 June
2004
The geography and ruling imams of
North Yemen
North Yemen kept the country
isolated from foreign influence before 1962. The country's relations
with
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia were defined by the
Taif Agreement of 1934, which
delineated the northernmost part of the border between the two
kingdoms and set the framework for commercial and other intercourse.
The
Taif Agreement has been renewed periodically in 20-year
increments, and its validity was reaffirmed in 1995. Relations with
the British colonial authorities in
Aden
Aden and the south were usually
tense.
The Soviet and Chinese Aid Missions established in 1958 and 1959 were
the first important non-Muslim presences in North Yemen. Following the
September 1962 revolution, the
Yemen Arab Republic
Yemen Arab Republic became closely
allied with and heavily dependent upon Egypt.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia aided the
royalists in their attempt to defeat the Republicans and did not
recognize the
Yemen Arab Republic
Yemen Arab Republic until 1970. At the same time, Saudi
Arabia maintained direct contact with Yemeni tribes, which sometimes
strained its official relations with the Yemeni Government. Saudi
Arabia remained hostile to any form of political and social reform in
Yemen[269] and continued to provide financial support for tribal
elites.[270]
In February 1989,
North Yemen
North Yemen joined Iraq, Jordan, and
Egypt
Egypt in
forming the
Arab Cooperation Council
Arab Cooperation Council (ACC), an organization created
partly in response to the founding of the
Gulf Cooperation Council
Gulf Cooperation Council and
intended to foster closer economic cooperation and integration among
its members. After unification, the Republic of
Yemen
Yemen was accepted as
a member of the ACC in place of its YAR predecessor. In the wake of
the Persian Gulf crisis, the ACC has remained inactive.
Yemen
Yemen is not a
member of the
Gulf Cooperation Council
Gulf Cooperation Council mainly for its republican
government.[271]
Yemen
Yemen is a member of the United Nations, the
Arab
Arab League, and the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and also participates in the
nonaligned movement. The Republic of
Yemen
Yemen accepted responsibility for
all treaties and debts of its predecessors, the
Yemen
Yemen
Arab
Arab Republic
(YAR) and the
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY).
Yemen
Yemen has
acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.
Ousted Yemeni President
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi with U.S. Secretary of
State John Kerry, 7 May 2015
Protest against Saudi blockade of Yemen, New York City, 2017
Since the end of the 1994 civil war, tangible progress has been made
on the diplomatic front in restoring normal relations with Yemen's
neighbors. In the summer of 2000,
Yemen
Yemen and
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia signed an
International Border Treaty settling a 50-year-old dispute over the
location of the border between the two countries. Until the signing of
the Yemen-
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia peace treaty in July 2000,[272] Yemen's
northern border was undefined; the
Arabian Desert
Arabian Desert prevented any human
habitation there.
Yemen
Yemen settled its dispute with
Eritrea
Eritrea over the
Hanish Islands
Hanish Islands in 1998. The
Saudi – Yemen barrier
Saudi – Yemen barrier was constructed by
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the
smuggling of drugs and weapons.[273] The Independent headed an article
with "Saudi Arabia, one of the most vocal critics in the
Arab world
.svg/440px-Arab_League_member_states_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Arab world of
Israel's "security fence" in the West Bank, is quietly emulating the
Israeli example by erecting a barrier along its porous border with
Yemen."[274]
Human rights[edit]
Main article: Human rights in Yemen
The government and its security forces, often considered to suffer
from rampant corruption,[275] have been responsible for torture,
inhumane treatment, and extrajudicial executions. There are arbitrary
arrests of citizens, especially in the south, as well as arbitrary
searches of homes. Prolonged pretrial detention is a serious problem,
and judicial corruption, inefficiency, and executive interference
undermine due process. Freedom of speech, the press, and religion are
all restricted.[276] Journalists critical of the government are often
harassed and threatened by the police.[220] Homosexuality is illegal,
punishable by death.[277]
Since the start of the
Shia
Shia insurgency, many people accused of
supporting Al-Houthi have been arrested and held without charge or
trial. According to the U.S. State Department International Religious
Freedom Report 2007, "Some Zaydis reported harassment and
discrimination by the Government because they were suspected of
sympathizing with the al-Houthis. However, it appears the Government's
actions against the group were probably politically, not religiously,
motivated."[278]
The
U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants reported several
violations of refugee and asylum seekers' rights in the organization's
2008 World
Refugee
Refugee Survey. Yemeni authorities reportedly deported
numerous foreigners without giving them access to the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees, despite the UN's repeated requests.
Refugees further reported violence directed against them by Yemeni
authorities while living in refugee camps. Yemeni officials reportedly
raped and beat camp-based refugees with impunity in 2007.[279]
Yemen
Yemen is ranked last of 135 countries in the 2012 Global Gender Gap
Report.[280]
Human Rights Watch
Human Rights Watch reported on discrimination and
violence against women as well as on the abolition of the minimum
marriage age of fifteen for women. The onset of puberty (interpreted
by some to be as low as the age of nine) was set as a requirement for
marriage instead.[281] Publicity about the case of ten-year-old Yemeni
divorcee Nujood
Ali
Ali brought the child marriage issue to the fore not
only in
Yemen
Yemen but also worldwide.[282][283][284]
Human trafficking[edit]
Main article:
Human trafficking
Human trafficking in Yemen
The
United States Department of State
United States Department of State 2013 Trafficking in Persons
report classified
Yemen
Yemen as a Tier 3 country,[285] meaning that its
government does not fully comply with the minimum standards against
human trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so.[286]
Yemen
Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962,[287] but it is still being
practiced.[288]
Military[edit]
Main article: Military of Yemen
Yemeni soldiers
The armed forces of
Yemen
Yemen include the
Yemen Army
Yemen Army (includes Republican
Guard), Navy (includes Marines),
Yemeni Air Force
Yemeni Air Force (Al Quwwat al
Jawwiya al Yamaniya; includes Air Defense Force). A major
reorganization of the armed forces continues. The unified air forces
and air defenses are now under one command. The navy has concentration
in Aden. Total armed forces manning numbers about 401,000 active
personnel, including moreover especially conscripts. The
Yemen
Yemen Arab
Republic and The
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen joined to form
the Republic of
Yemen
Yemen on 22 May 1990.[citation needed] The supreme
commander of the armed forces is the President of the Republic of
Yemen.
The number of military personnel in
Yemen
Yemen is relatively high; in sum,
Yemen
Yemen has the second largest military force on the Arabian Peninsula
after Saudi Arabia. In 2012, total active troops were estimated as
follows: army, 390,000; navy, 7,000; and air force, 5,000. In
September 2007, the government announced the reinstatement of
compulsory military service. Yemen's defense budget, which in 2006
represented approximately 40 percent of the total government budget,
is expected to remain high for the near term, as the military draft
takes effect and internal security threats continue to escalate. By
2012,
Yemen
Yemen had 401,000 active personnel.
Administrative divisions[edit]
Main article: Governorates of Yemen
Map of the Federal Regions of Yemen
Governorates of Yemen
As of the end of 2004,
Yemen
Yemen was divided into twenty governorates
(muhafazat – the latest being Raymah Governorate, which was created
during 2004) plus one municipality called "Amanat Al-Asemah" (the
latter containing the constitutional capital, Sana'a).[289] An
additional governorate (Soqatra Governorate) was created in December
2013 comprising
Socotra
Socotra Island (bottom-right corner of map),
previously part of Hadramaut Governorate.[290] The governorates are
subdivided into 333 districts (muderiah), which are subdivided into
2,210 sub-districts, and then into 38,284 villages (as of 2001).
In 2014, a constitutional panel decided to divide the country into six
regions—four in the north, two in the south, and capital Sana'a
outside of any region—creating a federalist model of
governance.[291] This federal proposal was a contributing factor
toward the Houthis' subsequent coup d'état against the
government.[292][293][294]
Saada
Al Jawf
Hadhramaut
Al Mahrah
Hajjah
'Amran
Al Mahwit
Amanat Al Asimah
(
Sana'a
Sana'a City)
Sana'a
Ma'rib
Al Hudaydah
Raymah
Dhamar
Ibb
Dhale
Al Bayda
Shabwah
Taiz
Lahij
Abyan
Aden
Socotra[290]
Economy[edit] Main article: Economy of Yemen Further information: Telecommunications in Yemen, Transportation in Yemen, and Internet usage in Yemen
A proportional representation of Yemen's exports
Yemen
Yemen as of 2013[update] had a GDP (ppp) of US$61.63 billion, with an
income per capita of $2,500. Services are the largest economic sector
(61.4% of GDP), followed by the industrial sector (30.9%), and
agriculture (7.7%). Of these, petroleum production represents around
25% of GDP and 63% of the government's revenue.[295]
Agriculture[edit]
A coffee plantation in North Yemen
Agriculture previously represented 18–27% of the GDP, but its
apportionment began changing due to emigration of rural labor, and
structural changes within the sector.[296] Principal agricultural
commodities produced in the nation include grain, vegetables, fruits,
pulses, qat, coffee, cotton, dairy products, fish, livestock (sheep,
goats, cattle, camels), and poultry.[295]
Most Yemenis are employed in agriculture.
Sorghum
Sorghum is the most common
crop. Cotton and many fruit trees are also grown, with mangoes being
the most valuable. A big problem in
Yemen
Yemen is the cultivation of Khat,
a psychoactive plant that releases a stimulant when chewed, and
accounts for up to 40 percent of the water drawn from the
Sana'a
Sana'a Basin
each year, and that figure is rising. Some agricultural practices are
drying the
Sana'a
Sana'a Basin and displaced vital crops, which has resulted
in increasing food prices. Rising food prices, in turn, pushed an
additional six percent of the country into poverty in 2008 alone.[297]
Efforts are being made by the Government and
Dawoodi Bohra
Dawoodi Bohra community
at
North Yemen
North Yemen to replace qat with coffee plantations.[298]
Industry[edit]
Yemen's industrial sector is centered on crude oil production and
petroleum refining, food processing, handicrafts, small-scale
production of cotton textiles and leather goods, aluminum products,
commercial ship repair, cement, and natural gas production. As of
2013,
Yemen
Yemen had an industrial production growth rate of 4.8%.[295] It
also has large proven reserves of natural gas.[299] Yemen's first
liquified natural gas plant began production in October 2009.
Labour force[edit]
A
Souq
Souq in Old Sana'a
The labor force was 7 million workers in 2013. Services, industry,
construction and commerce together constitute less than 25% of the
labor force. The unemployment rate as of 2003 was 35%.[295]
Export and import[edit]
As of 2013[update], exports from
Yemen
Yemen totaled $6.694 billion. The
main export commodities are crude oil, coffee, dried and salted fish,
liquefied natural gas. These products were mainly sent to
China
China (41%),
Thailand
Thailand (19.2%),
India
India (11.4%), and
South Korea
South Korea (4.4%). Imports as of
2013[update] total $10.97 billion. The main imported commodities are
machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, livestock, and chemicals. These
products were mainly imported from the EU (48.8%), UAE (9.8%),
Switzerland (8.8%),
China
China (7.4%), and
India
India (5.8%).[295]
State budget[edit]
Drilling for oil in
Yemen
Yemen using a land rig
As of 2013[update], the Yemeni government's budget consisted of $7.769
billion in revenues and $12.31 billion in expenditures. Taxes and
other revenues constituted roughly 17.7% of the GDP, with a budget
deficit of 10.3%. The public debt was 47.1% of GDP.
Yemen
Yemen had reserves
of foreign exchange and gold of around $5.538 billion in 2013. Its
inflation rate over the same period based on consumer prices was
11.8%. Yemen's external debt totaled $7.806 billion.[295]
International relations[edit]
Beginning in the mid-1950s, the
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union and
China
China provided
large-scale assistance. For example,
China
China and the United States are
involved with the expansion of the
Sana'a
Sana'a International Airport. In
the south, pre-independence economic activity was overwhelmingly
concentrated in the port city of Aden. The seaborne transit trade,
which the port relied upon, collapsed with the closure of the Suez
Canal and Britain's withdrawal from
Aden
Aden in 1967.
Since the conclusion of the war, the government made an agreement with
the
International Monetary Fund
International Monetary Fund (IMF) to implement a structural
adjustment program. Phase one of the program included major financial
and monetary reforms, including floating the currency, reducing the
budget deficit, and cutting subsidies. Phase two addresses structural
issues, such as civil service reform.
In early 1995, the government of
Yemen
Yemen launched an economic,
financial, and administrative reform program (EFARP) with the support
of the World Bank and the IMF, as well as international donors. These
programs had a positive impact on Yemen's economy and led to the
reduction of the budget deficit to less than 3% of gross domestic
product during the period 1995–1999 and the correction of
macro-financial imbalances.[300] The real growth rate in the non-oil
sector rose by 5.6% from 1995 to 1997.[301]
Water supply and sanitation[edit]
Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Yemen
A key challenge is severe water scarcity, especially in the Highlands,
prompting
The Times
The Times to write "
Yemen
Yemen could become first nation to run
out of water."[302] A second key challenge is a high level of poverty,
making it difficult to recover the costs of service provision. Access
to water supply sanitation is as low as in some sub-Saharan African
countries.
Yemen
Yemen is both the poorest country and the most water-scarce
country in the
Arab
Arab world. Third, the capacity of sector institutions
to plan, build, operate and maintain infrastructure remains limited.
Last but not least the security situation makes it even more difficult
to improve or even maintain existing levels of service.
The average Yemeni has access to only 140 cubic meters of water per
year (101 gallons per day ) for all uses, while the Middle Eastern
average is 1000 m3/yr, and the internationally defined threshold for
water stress is 1700 cubic meters per year.[303] Yemen's groundwater
is the main source of water in the country but the water tables have
dropped severely leaving
Yemen
Yemen without a viable source of water. For
example, in Sana'a, the water table was 30 metres (98 feet) below
surface in the 1970s but had dropped to 1200 meters below surface by
2012. The groundwater has not been regulated by Yemen's
governments.[304]
Even before the revolution, Yemen's water situation had been described
as increasingly dire by experts who worried that
Yemen
Yemen would be the
first country to run out of water.[305] Agriculture in
Yemen
Yemen takes up
about 90% of water in
Yemen
Yemen even though it only generates 6% of GDP. A
large portion of Yemenis are dependent on small-scale subsistence
agriculture. Half of agricultural water in
Yemen
Yemen is used to grow khat,
a drug that many Yemenis chew.
Due to the 2015 Yemeni Civil War, the situation is increasingly dire.
80% of Yemen's population struggles to access water to drink and
bathe. Bombing has forced many Yemenis to leave their homes for other
areas, and so wells in those areas are under increasing pressure.[306]
Demographics[edit]
Main article: Demographics of Yemen
Yemen's population (1961–2008).
Yemen
Yemen has a growth rate of 3.46%
(2008 est.)[307]
Yemen's population is 28 million by 2016 estimates,[1] with 46% of the
population being under 15 years old and 2.7% above 65 years. In 1950,
it was 4.3 million.[308][309] By 2050, the population is estimated to
increase to about 60 million.[310]
Yemen
Yemen has a high total
fertility rate, at 4.45 children per woman. It is the 30th highest in
the world.[311] Sana'a's population has increased rapidly, from
roughly 55,000 in 1978[312] to nearly 2 million in the early 21st
century.
Ethnic groups[edit]
Yemen's tribal areas and Shia/
Sunni
Sunni regions.
Shia
Shia Muslims predominant
in the green area of Yemen's West, with the rest of
Yemen
Yemen being Sunni
Muslims
Yemeni ethnic groups are predominantly Arabs, followed by Afro-Arabs,
South Asians and Europeans.[295] When the former states of North and
South Yemen
South Yemen were established, most resident minority groups
departed.[313]
Yemen
Yemen is a largely tribal society.[314] In the
northern, mountainous parts of the country, there are 400 Zaidi
tribes.[315] There are also hereditary caste groups in urban areas
such as Al-Akhdam.[316] There are also Yemenis of Persian origin.
According to Muqaddasi, Persians formed the majority of Aden's
population in the 10th century.[317][318]
Yemenite Jews
Yemenite Jews once formed a sizable minority in
Yemen
Yemen with a distinct
culture from other Jewish communities in the world.[319] Most
emigrated to
Israel
Israel in the mid-20th century, following the Jewish
exodus from
Arab
Arab and Muslim countries and Operation Magic Carpet.[320]
An estimated 100,000 people of Indian origin are concentrated in the
southern part of the country, around Aden, Mukalla, Shihr, Lahaj,
Mokha and Hodeidah.[321]
Most of the prominent Indonesians, Malaysians, and
Singaporeans
Singaporeans of
Arab
Arab descent are
Hadhrami people
Hadhrami people with origins in southern
Yemen
Yemen in the
Hadramawt
Hadramawt coastal region.[322] Today there are almost 10,000 Hadramis
in Singapore.[323] The Hadramis migrated to Southeast Asia, East
Africa
.svg/440px-Africa_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Africa and the Indian subcontinent.[324]
The
Maqil were a collection of
Arab
Arab
Bedouin
Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin
who migrated westwards via Egypt. Several groups of Yemeni Arabs
turned south to Mauritania, and by the end of the 17th century, they
dominated the entire country. They can also be found throughout
Morocco
Morocco and in
Algeria
Algeria as well as in other North African
Countries.[325]
Yemen
Yemen is the only country in the
Arabian Peninsula
Arabian Peninsula that is signatory
to two international accords dating back to 1951 and 1967 governing
the protection of refugees.[326]
Yemen
Yemen hosted a population of refugees
and asylum seekers numbering approximately 124,600 in 2007. Refugees
and asylum seekers living in
Yemen
Yemen were predominantly from Somalia
(110,600),
Iraq
Iraq (11,000),
Ethiopia
Ethiopia (2,000),[279] and Syria.[327]
Additionally, more than 334,000 Yemenis have been internally displaced
by conflict.[326]
The
Yemeni diaspora is largely concentrated in neighbouring Saudi
Arabia, where between 800,000 and 1 million Yemenis reside,[328] and
the United Kingdom, home to between 70,000 and 80,000 Yemenis.[329]
Languages[edit]
Modern Standard
Arabic
Arabic is the official language of Yemen, while Yemeni
Arabic
Arabic is used as the vernacular. In al Mahrah Governorate in the far
east and the island of Socotra, several non-
Arabic
Arabic languages are
spoken.[330][331]
Yemeni Sign Language is used by the deaf community.
Yemen
Yemen is part of homeland of the South Semitic languages. Mehri is the
largest South Semitic language spoken in the nation, with more than
70,000 speakers. The ethnic group itself is called Mahra. Soqotri is
another South Semitic language, with speakers on the island of Socotra
isolated from the pressures of
Arabic
Arabic on the Yemeni mainland.
According to the 1990 census in Yemen, the number of speakers there
was 57,000.[332]
Yemen
Yemen was also home of the
Old South Arabian
Old South Arabian languages. The Razihi
language appears to be the only remaining
Old South Arabian
Old South Arabian language.
English is the most important foreign language, being widely taught
and spoken mostly in the south, a former British colony.[333] There
are a significant number of Russian speakers, originating from
Yemeni-Russian cross-marriages occurring mainly in the 1970s and
1980s. A small Cham-speaking community is found in the capital city of
Sana'a, originating from refugees expatriated from
Vietnam
Vietnam after the
Vietnam War
Vietnam War in the 1970s.[citation needed]
Urban areas[edit]
Main article: List of cities in Yemen
v t e
Largest cities or towns in Yemen http://www.geonames.org/YE/largest-cities-in-yemen.html
Rank Name Governorate Pop.
Sana'a
Al Hudaydah 1 Sana'a San‘a’ 1,937,451
Taiz
Aden
2 Al Hudaydah Al Hudaydah 617,871
3 Taiz Taiz 615,222
4 Aden Aden 548,433
5 Mukalla Hadhramaut 258,132
6 Ibb Ibb 234,837
7 Dhamar Dhamar 160,114
8 'Amran 'Amran 90,792
9 Sayyan San‘a’ 69,404
10 Zabid Al Hudaydah 52,590
Religion[edit] Main article: Religion in Yemen
Saleh Mosque
Saleh Mosque in Sana'a
Religion in Yemen
.jpg/440px-Alsalh-24-2-2014_(16481824622).jpg)
Religion in Yemen consists primarily of two principal Islamic
religious groups: About 56% of the Muslim population is
Sunni
Sunni and 44%
is Shia, according to the International Religious Freedom Report.[334]
Sunnis are primarily
Shafi'i
Shafi'i but also include significant groups of
Malikis and Hanbalis. Shias are primarily Zaidi and also have
significant minorities of Ismaili[335] and Twelver[335][336] Shias.
Meanwhile, it is said that Zaidi Shias of
Yemen
Yemen (especially
Al-houthis) have near feeling in their beliefs and thoughts to Twelver
Shia
Shia Muslims.[337]
Religion in Yemen[338]
Sunni
Sunni Islam
56.36%
Zaidiyyah
Zaidiyyah (
Shia
Shia Islam)
42.10%
Ismāʿīlism (
Shia
Shia Islam)
1.51%
Salafism
0.03%
Other religion
0.01%
The Sunnis are predominantly in the south and southeast. The Zaidis
are predominantly in the north and northwest whilst the Ismailis are
in the main centers such as
Sana'a
Sana'a and Ma'rib. There are mixed
communities in the larger cities. About .05 percent of Yemenis are
non-Muslim – adhering to Christianity, Judaism, or Hinduism or
having no religious affiliation.[339][340]
Estimates of the number of Christians in
Yemen
Yemen range from 25,000[341]
to 41,000.[342] A 2015 study estimates 400 Christians from a Muslim
background in the country.[343]
There are approximately 50 Jews left in Yemen. Some 200 Yemenite Jews
were brought to
Israel
Israel by the
Jewish Agency
Jewish Agency circa 2016.[344]
Culture[edit]
Main article: Culture of Yemen
The National Museum in Sana'a
Typical Yemeni House
Yemen
Yemen is a culturally rich country with influence from many
civilizations, such as the early civilization of Sheba.,[8][9][10]
Media[edit]
Main article: Media of Yemen
Dance in Sa'dah, northwestern Yemen
Radio broadcasting in
Yemen
Yemen began in the 1940s when it was still
divided into the South by the British and the North by the Imami
ruling system.[345] After the unification of
Yemen
Yemen in 1990, the Yemeni
government reformed its corporations and founded some additional radio
stations that broadcast locally. However, it drew back after 1994, due
to destroyed infrastructure resulting from the civil war.
Television is the most significant media platform in Yemen. Given the
low literacy rate in the country, television is the main source of
news for Yemenis. There are six free-to-air channels currently
headquartered in Yemen, of which four are state-owned.[346]
The Yemeni film industry is in its early stages; only two Yemeni films
have been released as of 2008[update].
Theatre[edit]
Main article: Theatre in Yemen
The history of Yemeni theatre dates back at least a century, to the
early 1900s. Both amateur and professional (government-sponsored)
theatre troupes perform in the country's major urban centers. Many of
Yemen's significant poets and authors, like
Ali
Ali Ahmed Ba Kathir,
Muhammad al-Sharafi, and Wajdi al-Ahdal, have written dramatic works;
poems, novels, and short stories by Yemeni authors like Mohammad
Abdul-Wali and
Abdulaziz Al-Maqaleh have also been adapted for the
stage. There have been Yemeni productions of plays by
Arab
Arab authors
such as
Tawfiq al-Hakim
Tawfiq al-Hakim and
Saadallah Wannous and by Western authors,
including Shakespeare, Pirandello, Brecht, and Tennessee Williams.
Historically speaking, the southern port city of
Aden
Aden is the cradle of
Yemeni theatre; in recent decades the capital, Sana'a, has hosted
numerous theatre festivals, often in conjunction with World Theatre
Day.
Sport[edit]
Football is the most popular sport in Yemen. The
Yemen
Yemen Football
Association is a member of
FIFA
FIFA and AFC. The Yemeni national football
team participates internationally. The country also hosts many
football clubs. They compete in the national and international
leagues.
Yemen's mountains provide many opportunities for outdoor sports, such
as biking, rock climbing, trekking, hiking, and other more challenging
sports, including mountain climbing.
Mountain
Mountain climbing and hiking
tours to the
Sarawat Mountains
Sarawat Mountains and the Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb,
including the 3,000 m (9,800 ft) peaks in the region, are
seasonally organized by local and international alpine agencies.
The coastal areas of
Yemen
Yemen and
Socotra
Socotra island also provide many
opportunities for water sports, such as surfing, bodyboarding,
sailing, swimming, and scuba diving.
Socotra
Socotra island is home to some of
the best surfing destinations in the world.
Camel jumping is a traditional sport that is becoming increasingly
popular among the Zaraniq tribe on the west coast of
Yemen
Yemen in a desert
plain by the Red Sea. Camels are placed side to side and victory goes
to the competitor who leaps, from a running start, over the most
camels. The jumpers train year round for competitions. Tribesmen
(women may not compete) tuck their robes around their waists for
freedom of movement while running and leaping.[347]
Yemen's biggest sports event was hosting the
20th Arabian Gulf Cup
20th Arabian Gulf Cup in
Aden
Aden and
Abyan
Abyan in the southern part of the country on 22 November
2010. Many thought
Yemen
Yemen was the strongest competitor, but it was
defeated in the first three matches of the tournament.[348]
Internationally, Naseem Hamed, a world champion boxer, is the most
well known Yemeni athlete.
World Heritage
World Heritage sites[edit]
Main article: Tourism in Yemen
High-rise architecture at Shibam, Wadi Hadramawt
Among Yemen's natural and cultural attractions are four World Heritage
sites.[349][350] The Old Walled City of
Shibam
Shibam in Wadi Hadhramaut,
inscribed by
UNESCO
UNESCO in 1982, two years after
Yemen
Yemen joined the World
Heritage Committee, is nicknamed "Manhattan of the Desert" because of
its "skyscrapers." Surrounded by a fortified wall made of mud and
straw, the 16th-century city is one of the oldest examples of urban
planning based on the principle of vertical construction.
The Old City of Sana'a, at an altitude of more than 2,100 metres
(7,000 ft), has been inhabited for over two and a half millennia,
and was inscribed in 1986.
Sana'a
Sana'a became a major Islamic centre in the
7th century, and the 103 mosques, 14 hammams (traditional bath
houses), and more than 6,000 houses that survive all date from before
the 11th century.
Close to the
Red Sea
Red Sea Coast, the Historic Town of Zabid, inscribed in
1993, was Yemen's capital from the 13th to the 15th century, and is an
archaeological and historical site. It played an important role for
many centuries because of its university, which was a center of
learning for the whole
Arab
Arab and Islamic world. Algebra is said to have
been invented there in the early 9th century by the little-known
scholar Al-Jazari.
The latest addition to Yemen's list of
World Heritage
World Heritage Sites is the
Socotra
Socotra Archipelago. Mentioned by
Marco Polo
Marco Polo in the 13th century, this
remote and isolated archipelago consists of four islands and two rocky
islets delineating the southern limit of the Gulf of Aden. The site
has a rich biodiversity. Nowhere else in the world do 37% of Socotra's
825 plants, 90% of its reptiles and 95% of its snails occur. It is
home to 192 bird species, 253 species of coral, 730 species of coastal
fish, and 300 species of crab and lobster, as well as a range of Aloes
and the Dragon's Blood Tree (Dracaena cinnabari). The cultural
heritage of
Socotra
Socotra includes the unique Soqotri language.
Education[edit]
Main article: Education in Yemen
New
Sana'a
Sana'a University in Sana'a
The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 64%.[351] The government has committed to reduce illiteracy to less than 10% by 2025.[352] Although Yemen's government provides for universal, compulsory, free education for children ages six through 15, the U.S. Department of State reports that compulsory attendance is not enforced. The government developed the National Basic Education Development Strategy in 2003 that aimed at providing education to 95% of Yemeni children between the ages of six and 14 years and also at decreasing the gap between males and females in urban and rural areas.[353]
Literacy Rate of
Yemen
Yemen population plus15 1995–2015 by UNESCO
Institute of Statistics
A seven-year project to improve gender equity and the quality and
efficiency of secondary education, focusing on girls in rural areas,
was approved by the World Bank in March 2008. Following this, Yemen
has increased its education spending from 5% of GDP in 1995 to 10% in
2005.[220]
According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the
top-ranking universities in the country are the Yemeni University of
Science & Technology (6532nd worldwide), Al Ahgaff University
(8930th) and
Sanaa University
Sanaa University (11043rd).[354]
Health[edit]
Main article: Health in Yemen
See also:
Famine in Yemen
.jpg/440px-019_Rally_(39025071401).jpg)
Famine in Yemen and 2016–17
Yemen
Yemen cholera outbreak
A Yemeni doctor examines an infant in a USAID-sponsored health care clinic
According to 2009 estimates, life expectancy in
Yemen
Yemen is 63.27
years.[295] Despite the significant progress
Yemen
Yemen has made to expand
and improve its health care system over the past decade, the system
remains severely underdeveloped. Total expenditures on health care in
2004 constituted 5% of gross domestic product. In that same year, the
per capita expenditure for health care was very low compared with
other Middle Eastern countries – US$34 per capita according to the
World Health Organization.
The number of doctors in
Yemen
Yemen rose by an average of more than 7%
between 1995 and 2000. as of 2005[update] there were three doctors per
10,000 people. In 2005
Yemen
Yemen had 6.1 hospital beds available per
10,000 persons. Health care services are particularly scarce in rural
areas. 25% of rural areas are covered by health services, compared
with 80% of urban areas. Most childhood deaths are caused by illnesses
for which vaccines exist or that are otherwise preventable.[355]
Circa 2009
Sana'a
Sana'a may be the first capital city in the world to run
out of drinking water.[356]
See also[edit]
Geography portal
Yemen
Yemen portal
Middle East
.svg/440px-Middle_East_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Middle East portal
Asia
Asia portal
Book: Yemen
Eduard Glaser Houthi insurgency in Yemen List of Yemen-related topics Outline of Yemen Carl Rathjens
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