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v t e
Fragment of a Septuagint: A column of uncial book from
1 Esdras
1 Esdras in the
Codex Vaticanus
Codex Vaticanus c. 325–350 CE, the basis of Sir Lancelot
Charles Lee Brenton's Greek edition and English translation.
The
Septuagint
Septuagint (from the
Latin
Latin septuaginta, "seventy"), also known as
the LXX, is a
Koine Greek
Koine Greek translation of a Hebraic textual tradition
that included certain texts which were later included in the canonical
Hebrew
Bible
Bible and other related texts which were not. As the primary
Greek translation of the Old Testament, it is also called the Greek
Old Testament. This translation is quoted a number of times in the New
Testament,[1][2] particularly in Pauline epistles,[3] and also by the
Apostolic Fathers
Apostolic Fathers and later Greek Church Fathers.
The Greek title Ἡ μετάφρασις τῶν
Ἑβδομήκοντα, lit. "The Translation of the Seventy", and
its abbreviation "LXX", derive from the legend of seventy-two Jewish
scholars (6 from each of the 12 tribes of Israel, who worked
independently to translate the whole and ultimately produced identical
versions) in the court of Ptolemy II in seventy-two days (see
Aristeas, Letter of, below), who translated the Five Books of Moses
into
Koine Greek
Koine Greek as early as the 3rd century BCE.[4][5] Separated from
the Hebrew canon of the Jewish
Bible
Bible in Rabbinic Judaism, translations
of the
Torah
Torah into
Koine Greek
Koine Greek by early Jewish Rabbis have survived as
rare fragments only.
The traditional story, as recorded in the Letter of Aristeas, is that
Ptolemy II sponsored the translation of the
Torah
Torah (Pentateuch, Five
Books of Moses). Subsequently, the Greek translation was in
circulation among the Alexandrian Jews who were fluent in Koine Greek
but not in Hebrew,[6] the former being the lingua franca of
Alexandria, Egypt
Alexandria, Egypt and the
Eastern Mediterranean at the time.[7]
The
Septuagint
Septuagint should not be confused with the seven or more other
Greek versions of the Old Testament,[4] most of which did not survive
except as fragments (some parts of these being known from Origen's
Hexapla, a comparison of six translations in adjacent columns, now
almost wholly lost). Of these, the most important are those by Aquila,
Symmachus, and Theodotion.
Modern critical editions of the
Septuagint
Septuagint are based on the Codices
Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, and Alexandrinus.
Contents
1 Name 2 Composition
2.1 Background 2.2 History 2.3 Language 2.4 Disputes over canonicity 2.5 Final form
2.5.1 Incorporations from Theodotion
3 Use
3.1 Jewish use 3.2 Christian use
4 Textual history
4.1 Table of books 4.2 Textual analysis
4.2.1 Manuscripts
4.2.2 Differences with the
Latin
Latin
Vulgate
Vulgate and the
Masoretic
Masoretic text
4.2.3 Dead Sea Scrolls
4.3 Printed editions 4.4 English translations
5 Promotion 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links
10.1 General 10.2 Texts and translations 10.3 The LXX and the NT
Name[edit]
The
Septuagint
Septuagint derives its name from the
Latin
Latin versio septuaginta
interpretum, "translation of the seventy interpreters", Greek: ἡ
μετάφρασις τῶν ἑβδομήκοντα, hē metáphrasis
tōn hebdomḗkonta, "translation of the seventy".[8] However, it was
not until the time of
Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) that the
Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures came to be called by the
Latin
Latin term Septuaginta.[9] The Roman numeral LXX (seventy) is commonly
used as an abbreviation, as are
G
displaystyle mathfrak G
[10] or G. Composition[edit] Background[edit]
Beginning of the
Letter of Aristeas
Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates. Biblioteca
Apostolica Vaticana, 11th century.
Seventy-two Jewish scholars were asked by the Greek King of Egypt
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
Ptolemy II Philadelphus to translate the
Torah
Torah from Biblical Hebrew
into Greek, for inclusion in the Library of Alexandria.[11]
This narrative is found in the pseudepigraphic
Letter of Aristeas
Letter of Aristeas to
his brother Philocrates,[12] and is repeated by
Philo
Philo of Alexandria,
Josephus[13][14] and by various later sources, including St.
Augustine.[15] The story is also found in the Tractate Megillah of the
Babylonian Talmud:
King Ptolemy once gathered 72 Elders. He placed them in 72 chambers,
each of them in a separate one, without revealing to them why they
were summoned. He entered each one's room and said: "Write for me the
Torah
Torah of Moshe, your teacher". God put it in the heart of each one to
translate identically as all the others did.[5]
Philo
Philo of Alexandria, who relied extensively on the Septuagint,[16]
says that the number of scholars was chosen by selecting six scholars
from each of the twelve tribes of Israel.
History[edit]
The date of the 3rd century BCE is supported (for the Torah
translation) by a number of factors, including the Greek being
representative of early Koine, citations beginning as early as the 2nd
century BCE, and early manuscripts datable to the 2nd century.[17][18]
After the Torah, other books were translated over the next two to
three centuries. It is not altogether clear which was translated when,
or where; some may even have been translated twice, into different
versions, and then revised.[19] The quality and style of the different
translators also varied considerably from book to book, from the
literal to paraphrasing to interpretative.
The translation process of the
Septuagint
Septuagint itself and from the
Septuagint
Septuagint into other versions can be broken down into several
distinct stages, during which the social milieu of the translators
shifted from
Hellenistic Judaism
Hellenistic Judaism to Early Christianity. The
translation of the
Septuagint
Septuagint itself began in the 3rd century BCE and
was completed by 132 BCE,[20][21][22] initially in Alexandria,
but in time elsewhere as well.[8] The
Septuagint
Septuagint is the basis for the
Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic
versions of the Christian Old Testament.[23]
Language[edit]
Some sections of the
Septuagint
Septuagint may show Semiticisms, or idioms and
phrases based on
Semitic languages
Semitic languages like Hebrew and Aramaic.[24] Other
books, such as Daniel and Proverbs, show Greek influence more
strongly.[11] Jewish
Koine Greek
Koine Greek exists primarily as a category of
literature, or cultural category, but apart from some distinctive
religious vocabulary is not so distinct from other varieties of Koine
Greek as to be counted a separate dialect.
The
Septuagint
Septuagint may also elucidate pronunciation of pre-Masoretic
Hebrew: many proper nouns are spelled out with Greek vowels in the
LXX, while contemporary Hebrew texts lacked vowel pointing.[25]
However, it is extremely unlikely that all ancient Hebrew sounds had
precise Greek equivalents.[26]
Disputes over canonicity[edit]
As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the Greek Bible
expanded. The
Torah
Torah (
Pentateuch
Pentateuch in Greek) always maintained its
pre-eminence as the basis of the canon, but the collection of
prophetic writings, based on the Jewish Nevi'im, had various
hagiographical works[which?] incorporated into it.
In addition, some newer books were included in the Septuagint: those
called anagignoskomena in Greek, known in English as Deuterocanonical
("second canon") because they are not included in the Jewish canon.
Among these are the Maccabees and the Wisdom of Ben Sira. Also, the
Septuagint
Septuagint version of some Biblical books, like Daniel and Esther, are
longer than those in the
Masoretic
Masoretic Text.[27]
It is not known when the
Ketuvim
Ketuvim ("writings"), the final part of the
three part Canon, was established, although some sort of selective
processes must have been employed because the
Septuagint
Septuagint did not
include other well-known Jewish documents such as Enoch or Jubilees or
other writings that are not part of the Jewish canon, and which are
now classified as Pseudepigrapha. However, the
Psalms
Psalms of Solomon, 3
Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, the
Epistle
Epistle of Jeremiah, the
Book
Book of Odes, the
Prayer of Manasseh
Prayer of Manasseh and
Psalm 151
Psalm 151 are included in some copies of the
Septuagint,[28][better source needed] some of which are
accepted as canonical by
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox and some other churches.
(The differences can be seen here.)
Since Late Antiquity, once attributed to a Council of Jamnia,
mainstream rabbinic Judaism rejected the
Septuagint
Septuagint as valid Jewish
scriptural texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First,
some mistranslations were ascertained.[29] Second, the Hebrew source
texts, in some cases (particularly the
Book
Book of Daniel), used for the
Septuagint
Septuagint differed from the
Masoretic
Masoretic tradition of Hebrew texts,
which was affirmed as canonical by the Jewish rabbis. Third, the
rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging
tradition of Christianity.[22][30] Finally, the rabbis claimed for the
Hebrew language
Hebrew language a divine authority, in contrast to Aramaic or
Greek—even though these languages were the lingua franca of Jews
during this period.[31] As a result of this teaching, translations of
the
Torah
Torah into
Koine Greek
Koine Greek by early Jewish Rabbis have survived as
rare fragments only.
In time the LXX became synonymous with the "Greek Old Testament", i.e.
a Christian canon of writings which incorporated all the books of the
Hebrew canon, along with additional texts. The
Roman Catholic
Roman Catholic and
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox Churches include most of the books that are in the
Septuagint
Septuagint in their canons.
Protestant
Protestant churches, however, usually do
not. After the
Protestant
Protestant Reformation, many
Protestant
Protestant Bibles began to
follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came
to be called "Apocrypha" (originally meaning "hidden" but became
synonymous with "of questionable authenticity"), with some arguing
against them being classed as Scripture.[32][33][34][full citation
needed] The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the
King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard
Version.[35]
Final form[edit]
See also: § Table of books
All the books of western biblical canons of the
Old Testament
Old Testament are
found in the Septuagint, although the order does not always coincide
with the Western ordering of the books. The
Septuagint
Septuagint order for the
Old Testament
Old Testament is evident in the earliest Christian Bibles (4th
century).[11]
Some books that are set apart in the
Masoretic
Masoretic text are grouped
together. For example, the
Books of Samuel
Books of Samuel and the
Books of Kings
Books of Kings are
in the LXX one book in four parts called Βασιλειῶν ("Of
Reigns"). In LXX, the
Books of Chronicles
Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and it is
called Paraleipoménon (Παραλειπομένων—things left
out). The
Septuagint
Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of
one
Book
Book of Twelve.[11]
Some scriptures of ancient origin are found in the
Septuagint
Septuagint but are
not present in the Hebrew Bible. These additional books are Tobit,
Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, Baruch,
Letter of Jeremiah
Letter of Jeremiah (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the
Vulgate), additions to Daniel (The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the
Three Children, Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther,
1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes,
including the Prayer of Manasseh, the
Psalms
Psalms of Solomon, and Psalm
151.
Despite this, there are fragments of some deuterocanonical books that
have been found in Hebrew among the
Dead Sea Scrolls
Dead Sea Scrolls found at Qumran:
Sirach, whose text in Hebrew was already known from the Cairo Geniza,
has been found in two scrolls (2QSir or 2Q18, 11QPs_a or 11Q5) in
Hebrew. Another Hebrew scroll of
Sirach
Sirach has been found in Masada
(MasSir).[36]:597 Five fragments from the
Book
Book of Tobit have been
found in
Qumran
Qumran written in Aramaic and in one written in Hebrew
(papyri 4Q, nos. 196-200).[36][37]:636
Psalm 151
Psalm 151 appears along with a
number of canonical and non-canonical psalms in the Dead Sea scroll
11QPs(a) (named also 11Q5), a first-century AD scroll discovered in
1956.[38] This scroll contains two short Hebrew psalms which scholars
now agree served as the basis for Psalm 151.[39]
The canonical acceptance of these books varies among different
Christian traditions. For more information regarding these books, see
the articles Biblical apocrypha, Biblical canon, Books of the Bible,
and Deuterocanonical books.
Incorporations from Theodotion[edit]
In the most ancient copies of the
Bible
Bible which contain the Septuagint
version of the Old Testament, the
Book
Book of Daniel is not the original
Septuagint
Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of Theodotion's translation
from the Hebrew, which more closely resembles the
Masoretic
Masoretic text. The
Septuagint
Septuagint version was discarded in favor of Theodotion's version in
the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek-speaking areas, this happened
near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin-speaking areas (at least
in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century.
History does not record the reason for this, and St.
Jerome
Jerome reports,
in the preface to the
Vulgate
Vulgate version of Daniel, This thing 'just'
happened.[40] Several
Old Greek texts of the
Book
Book of Daniel have been
rediscovered recently and work is ongoing in reconstructing the
original form of the book.[11]
The canonical
Ezra-Nehemiah
Ezra-Nehemiah is known in the
Septuagint
Septuagint as "Esdras B",
and
1 Esdras
1 Esdras is "Esdras A".
1 Esdras
1 Esdras is a very similar text to the
books of Ezra-Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to
be derived from the same original text. It has been proposed, and is
thought highly likely by scholars, that "Esdras B"—the canonical
Ezra-Nehemiah—is Theodotion's version of this material, and "Esdras
A" is the version which was previously in the
Septuagint
Septuagint on its
own.[40]
Use[edit]
Jewish use[edit]
See also: Development of the Hebrew
Bible
Bible canon
Pre-Christian Jews
Philo
Philo and
Josephus
Josephus considered the
Septuagint
Septuagint on
equal standing with the Hebrew text.[11][41] Manuscripts of the
Septuagint
Septuagint have been found among the
Qumran
Qumran Scrolls in the Dead Sea,
and were thought to have been in use among Jews at the time.
Starting approximately in the 2nd century CE, several factors led most
Jews to abandon use of the LXX. The earliest gentile Christians of
necessity used the LXX, as it was at the time the only Greek version
of the Bible, and most, if not all, of these early non-Jewish
Christians could not read Hebrew. The association of the LXX with a
rival religion may have rendered it suspect in the eyes of the newer
generation of Jews and Jewish scholars.[23] Instead, Jews used
Hebrew/Aramaic
Targum
Targum manuscripts later compiled by the
Masoretes and
authoritative Aramaic translations, such as those of Onkelos and Rabbi
Yonathan ben Uziel.[42]
What was perhaps most significant for the LXX, as distinct from other
Greek versions, was that the LXX began to lose Jewish sanction
after[when?] differences between it and contemporary Hebrew scriptures
were discovered (see Disputes over canonicity). Even Greek-speaking
Jews tended less to the LXX, preferring other Jewish versions in
Greek, such as that of the 2nd-century Aquila translation, which
seemed to be more concordant with contemporary Hebrew texts.[23]
Christian use[edit]
See also: Development of the
Old Testament
Old Testament canon
The
Early Christian Church
Early Christian Church used the Greek texts[43] since Greek was a
lingua franca of the Roman Empire at the time, and the language of the
Greco-Roman Church (Aramaic was the language of Syriac Christianity).
The relationship between the apostolic use of the Old Testament, for
example, the
Septuagint
Septuagint and the now lost Hebrew texts (though to some
degree and in some form carried on in
Masoretic
Masoretic tradition) is
complicated. The
Septuagint
Septuagint seems to have been a major source for the
Apostles, but it is not the only one. St.
Jerome
Jerome offered, for example,
Matt 2:15 and 2:23, John 19:37, John 7:38, 1 Cor. 2:9.[44] as examples
not found in the Septuagint, but in Hebrew texts. (Matt 2:23 is not
present in current
Masoretic
Masoretic tradition either, though according to St.
Jerome
Jerome it was in Hosea 11:1.) The
New Testament
New Testament writers, when citing
the Jewish scriptures, or when quoting Jesus doing so, freely used the
Greek translation, implying that Jesus, his
Apostles
Apostles and their
followers considered it reliable.[3][24][45]
In the Early Christian Church, the presumption that the
Septuagint
Septuagint was
translated by Jews before the era of Christ, and that the Septuagint
at certain places gives itself more to a christological interpretation
than 2nd-century Hebrew texts was taken as evidence that "Jews" had
changed the Hebrew text in a way that made them less christological.
For example,
Irenaeus
Irenaeus concerning Isaiah 7:14: The
Septuagint
Septuagint clearly
writes of a virgin (Greek παρθένος, bethulah in Hebrew) that
shall conceive.,[46] while the word almah in the Hebrew text was,
according to Irenaeus, at that time interpreted by
Theodotion
Theodotion and
Aquila (both proselytes of the Jewish faith) as a young woman that
shall conceive. According to Irenaeus, the
Ebionites
Ebionites used this to
claim that Joseph was the (biological) father of Jesus. From Irenaeus'
point of view that was pure heresy, facilitated by (late)
anti-Christian alterations of the scripture in Hebrew, as evident by
the older, pre-Christian, Septuagint.[47]
When
Jerome
Jerome undertook the revision of the Old
Latin
Latin translations of
the Septuagint, he checked the
Septuagint
Septuagint against the Hebrew texts
that were then available. He broke with church tradition and
translated most of the
Old Testament
Old Testament of his
Vulgate
Vulgate from Hebrew rather
than Greek. His choice was severely criticized by Augustine, his
contemporary;[48] a flood of still less moderate criticism came from
those who regarded
Jerome
Jerome as a forger. While on the one hand he argued
for the superiority of the Hebrew texts in correcting the Septuagint
on both philological and theological grounds, on the other, in the
context of accusations of heresy against him,
Jerome
Jerome would acknowledge
the
Septuagint
Septuagint texts as well.[49] With the passage of time, acceptance
of Jerome's version gradually increased until it displaced the Old
Latin
Latin translations of the Septuagint.[23]
The
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox Church still prefers to use the LXX as the basis
for translating the
Old Testament
Old Testament into other languages. The Eastern
Orthodox also use LXX untranslated where Greek is the liturgical
language, e.g. in the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, the Church of
Greece and the Cypriot Orthodox Church. Critical translations of the
Old Testament, while using the
Masoretic Text
Masoretic Text as their basis, consult
the
Septuagint
Septuagint as well as other versions in an attempt to reconstruct
the meaning of the Hebrew text whenever the latter is unclear,
undeniably corrupt, or ambiguous.[23] For example, the New Jerusalem
Bible
Bible Foreword says, "Only when this (the
Masoretic
Masoretic Text) presents
insuperable difficulties have emendations or other versions, such as
the ... LXX, been used."[50] The Translator's Preface to the New
International Version says: "The translators also consulted the more
important early versions (including) the
Septuagint
Septuagint ... Readings from
these versions were occasionally followed where the MT seemed doubtful
..."[51]
Textual history[edit]
Table of books[edit]
Greek name [8][52][a] Transliteration English name
Law
Γένεσις Genesis Genesis
Ἔξοδος Exodos Exodus
Λευϊτικόν Leuitikon Leviticus
Ἀριθμοί Arithmoi Numbers
Δευτερονόμιον Deuteronomion Deuteronomy
History
Ἰησοῦς Nαυῆ Iēsous Nauē Joshua
Κριταί Kritai Judges
Ῥούθ Routh Ruth
Βασιλειῶν Αʹ[b] 1 Basileiōn 1 Samuel
Βασιλειῶν Βʹ 2 Basileiōn 2 Samuel
Βασιλειῶν Γʹ 3 Basileiōn 1 Kings
Βασιλειῶν Δʹ 4 Basileiōn 2 Kings
Παραλειπομένων Αʹ I Paraleipomenōn[c] I Chronicles
Παραλειπομένων Βʹ 2 Paraleipomenōn II Chronicles
Ἔσδρας Αʹ 1 Esdras 1 Esdras
Ἔσδρας Βʹ 2 Esdras Ezra-Nehemiah
Τωβίτ[d] Tōbit[e] Tobit or Tobias
Ἰουδίθ Ioudith Judith
Ἐσθήρ Esthēr Esther with additions
Μακκαβαίων Αʹ 1 Makkabaiōn 1 Maccabees
Μακκαβαίων Βʹ 2 Makkabaiōn 2 Maccabees
Μακκαβαίων Γʹ 3 Makkabaiōn 3 Maccabees
Wisdom
Ψαλμοί Psalmoi Psalms
Ψαλμός ΡΝΑʹ Psalmos 151 Psalm 151
Προσευχὴ Μανασσῆ Proseuchē Manassē Prayer of Manasseh
Ἰώβ Iōb Job
Παροιμίαι Paroimiai Proverbs
Ἐκκλησιαστής Ekklēsiastēs Ecclesiastes
Ἆσμα Ἀσμάτων
Asma Asmatōn
Song of Songs
Song of Songs or Song of Solomon or Canticle of Canticles
Σοφία Σαλoμῶντος Sophia Salomōnios Wisdom or Wisdom of Solomon
Σοφία Ἰησοῦ Σειράχ
Sophia Iēsou Seirach
Sirach
Sirach or Ecclesiasticus
Ψαλμοί Σαλoμῶντος
Psalmoi Salomōnios
Psalms
Psalms of Solomon[53]
Prophets
Δώδεκα Dōdeka Minor Prophets
Ὡσηέ Αʹ I. Hōsēe Hosea
Ἀμώς Βʹ II. Āmōs Amos
Μιχαίας Γʹ III. Michaias Micah
Ἰωήλ Δʹ IV. Iōēl Joel
Ὀβδιού Εʹ[f] V. Obdiou Obadiah
Ἰωνᾶς Ϛ' VI. Iōnas Jonah
Ναούμ Ζʹ VII. Naoum Nahum
Ἀμβακούμ Ηʹ VIII. Ambakoum Habakkuk
Σοφονίας Θʹ IX. Sophonias Zephaniah
Ἀγγαῖος Ιʹ X. Angaios Haggai
Ζαχαρίας ΙΑʹ XI. Zacharias Zachariah
Μαλαχίας ΙΒʹ XII. Malachias Malachi
Ἠσαΐας Ēsaias Isaiah
Ἱερεμίας Hieremias Jeremiah
Βαρούχ Barouch Baruch
Θρῆνοι Thrēnoi Lamentations
Ἐπιστολὴ Ἰερεμίου Epistolē Ieremiou Letter of Jeremiah
Ἰεζεκιήλ Iezekiēl Ezekiel
Δανιήλ Daniēl Daniel with additions
Appendix
Μακκαβαίων Δ' Παράρτημα 4 Makkabaiōn 4 Maccabees[g]
Textual analysis[edit]
The inter-relationship between various significant ancient manuscripts
of the
Old Testament
Old Testament (some identified by their siglum). LXX here
denotes the original septuagint.
Modern scholarship holds that the LXX was written during the 3rd
through 1st centuries BCE. But nearly all attempts at dating specific
books, with the exception of the
Pentateuch
Pentateuch (early- to mid-3rd century
BCE), are tentative and without consensus.[11]
Later Jewish revisions and recensions of the Greek against the Hebrew
are well attested, the most famous of which include the Three: Aquila
(128 CE), Symmachus, and Theodotion. These three, to varying
degrees, are more literal renderings of their contemporary Hebrew
scriptures as compared to the Old Greek. Modern scholars consider one
or more of the 'three' to be totally new Greek versions of the Hebrew
Bible.[54]
Around 235 CE, Origen, a Christian scholar in Alexandria,
completed the Hexapla, a comprehensive comparison of the ancient
versions and Hebrew text side-by-side in six columns, with diacritical
markings (a.k.a. "editor's marks", "critical signs" or "Aristarchian
signs"). Much of this work was lost, but several compilations of the
fragments are available. In the first column was the contemporary
Hebrew, in the second a Greek transliteration of it, then the newer
Greek versions each in their own columns.
Origen
Origen also kept a column
for the
Old Greek (the Septuagint), which included readings from all
the Greek versions into a critical apparatus with diacritical marks
indicating to which version each line (Gr. στίχος) belonged.
Perhaps the voluminous
Hexapla
Hexapla was never copied in its entirety, but
Origen's combined text ("the fifth column") was copied frequently,
eventually without the editing marks, and the older uncombined text of
the LXX was neglected. Thus this combined text became the first major
Christian recension of the LXX, often called the Hexaplar recension.
In the century following Origen, two other major recensions were
identified by Jerome, who attributed these to Lucian and
Hesychius.[11]
Manuscripts[edit]
Main article:
Septuagint
Septuagint manuscripts
The oldest manuscripts of the LXX include 2nd century BCE fragments of
Leviticus and Deuteronomy (Rahlfs nos. 801, 819, and 957), and 1st
century BCE fragments of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Deuteronomy, and the Minor Prophets (
Alfred Rahlfs nos. 802, 803, 805,
848, 942, and 943). Relatively complete manuscripts of the LXX
postdate the Hexaplar rescension and include the
Codex Vaticanus
Codex Vaticanus from
the 4th century CE and the
Codex Alexandrinus
Codex Alexandrinus of the 5th century.
These are indeed the oldest surviving nearly complete manuscripts of
the
Old Testament
Old Testament in any language; the oldest extant complete Hebrew
texts date some 600 years later, from the first half of the 10th
century.[23][55] The 4th century
Codex Sinaiticus
Codex Sinaiticus also partially
survives, still containing many texts of the Old Testament.[56] While
there are differences between these three codices, scholarly consensus
today holds that one LXX—that is, the original pre-Christian
translation—underlies all three. The various Jewish and later
Christian revisions and recensions are largely responsible for the
divergence of the codices.[11] The
Codex Marchalianus
Codex Marchalianus is another
notable manuscript.
Differences with the
Latin
Latin
Vulgate
Vulgate and the
Masoretic
Masoretic text[edit]
The sources of the many differences between the Septuagint, the Latin
Vulgate
Vulgate and the
Masoretic
Masoretic text have long been discussed by scholars.
Following the Renaissance, a common opinion among some humanists was
that the LXX translators bungled the translation from the Hebrew and
that the LXX became more corrupt with time. The most widely accepted
view today is that the
Septuagint
Septuagint provides a reasonably accurate
record of an early Hebrew textual variant that differed from the
ancestor of the
Masoretic
Masoretic text as well as those of the
Latin
Latin Vulgate,
where both of the latter seem to have a more similar textual heritage.
This view is supported by comparisons with Biblical texts found at the
Essene
Essene settlement at
Qumran
Qumran (the Dead Sea Scrolls).[citation needed]
These issues notwithstanding, the text of the LXX is generally close
to that of the
Masoretes and Vulgate. For example, Genesis 4:1–6 is
identical in both the LXX,
Vulgate
Vulgate and the
Masoretic
Masoretic Text. Likewise,
Genesis 4:8 to the end of the chapter is the same. There is only one
noticeable difference in that chapter, at 4:7, to wit:
Genesis 4:7, LXX and English Translation (NETS)
Genesis 4:7,
Masoretic
Masoretic and English Translation from MT (Judaica Press)
Genesis 4:7,
Latin
Latin
Vulgate
Vulgate and English Translation (Douay-Rheims)
οὐκ ἐὰν ὀρθῶς προσενέγκῃς, ὀρθῶς δὲ μὴ διέλῃς, ἥμαρτες; ἡσύχασον· πρὸς σὲ ἡ ἀποστροφὴ αὐτοῦ, καὶ σὺ ἄρξεις αὐτοῦ.
If you offer correctly but do not divide correctly, have you not sinned? Be still; his recourse is to you, and you will rule over him. הֲלוֹא אִם תֵּיטִיב שְׂאֵת וְאִם לֹא תֵיטִיב לַפֶּתַח חַטָּאת רֹבֵץ וְאֵלֶיךָ תְּשׁוּקָתוֹ וְאַתָּה תִּמְשָׁל בּוֹ:
Is it not so that if you improve, it will be forgiven you? If you do not improve, however, at the entrance, sin is lying, and to you is its longing, but you can rule over it. nonne si bene egeris, recipies : sin autem male, statim in foribus peccatum aderit? sed sub te erit appetitus ejus, et tu dominaberis illius.
If thou do well, shalt thou not receive? but if ill, shall not sin forthwith be present at the door? but the lust thereof shall be under thee, and thou shalt have dominion over it.
This instance illustrates the complexity of assessing differences
between the LXX and the
Masoretic Text
Masoretic Text as well as the Vulgate. Despite
the striking divergence of meaning here between the
Septuagint
Septuagint and
later texts, nearly identical consonantal Hebrew source texts can be
reconstructed. The readily apparent semantic differences result from
alternative strategies for interpreting the difficult verse and relate
to differences in vowelization and punctuation of the consonantal
text.
The differences between the LXX and the MT thus fall into four
categories.[57]
Different Hebrew sources for the MT and the LXX. Evidence of this can
be found throughout the Old Testament. Most obvious are major
differences in Jeremiah and Job, where the LXX is much shorter and
chapters appear in different order than in the MT, and Esther where
almost one third of the verses in the LXX text have no parallel in the
MT. A more subtle example may be found in Isaiah 36.11; the meaning
ultimately remains the same, but the choice of words evidences a
different text. The MT reads "...al tedaber yehudit be-'ozne ha`am al
ha-homa" [speak not the Judean language in the ears of (or—which can
be heard by) the people on the wall]. The same verse in the LXX reads
according to the translation of Brenton "and speak not to us in the
Jewish tongue: and wherefore speakest thou in the ears of the men on
the wall." The MT reads "people" where the LXX reads "men". This
difference is very minor and does not affect the meaning of the verse.
Scholars at one time had used discrepancies such as this to claim that
the LXX was a poor translation of the Hebrew original. With the
discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, variant Hebrew texts of the Bible
were found. In fact this verse is found in
Qumran
Qumran (1QIsaa) where the
Hebrew word "haanashim" (the men) is found in place of "haam" (the
people). This discovery, and others like it, showed that even
seemingly minor differences of translation could be the result of
variant Hebrew source texts.
Differences in interpretation stemming from the same Hebrew text. A
good example is Genesis 4.7, shown above.
Differences as a result of idiomatic translation issues (i.e. a Hebrew
idiom may not easily translate into Greek, thus some difference is
intentionally or unintentionally imparted). For example, in Psalm
47:10 the MT reads "The shields of the earth belong to God". The LXX
reads "To God are the mighty ones of the earth." The metaphor
"shields" would not have made much sense to a Greek speaker; thus the
words "mighty ones" are substituted in order to retain the original
meaning.
Transmission changes in Hebrew or Greek (Diverging
revisionary/recensional changes and copyist errors)
Dead Sea Scrolls[edit] The Biblical manuscripts found in Qumran, commonly known as the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS), have prompted comparisons of the various texts associated with the Hebrew Bible, including the Septuagint.[58] Peter Flint[59] cites Emanuel Tov, the chief editor of the scrolls,[60] who identifies five broad variation categories of DSS texts:[61]
Proto-Masoretic: This consists of a stable text and numerous and
distinctive agreements with the
Masoretic
Masoretic Text. About 60% of the
Biblical scrolls fall into this category (e.g. 1QIsa-b)
Pre-Septuagint: These are the manuscripts which have distinctive
affinities with the Greek Bible. These number only about 5% of the
Biblical scrolls, for example, 4QDeut-q, 4QSam-a, and 4QJer-b,
4QJer-d. In addition to these manuscripts, several others share
distinctive individual readings with the Septuagint, although they do
not fall in this category.
The
Qumran
Qumran "Living Bible": These are the manuscripts which, according
to Tov, were copied in accordance with the "
Qumran
Qumran practice" (i.e.
with distinctive long orthography and morphology, frequent errors and
corrections, and a free approach to the text. Such scrolls comprise
about 20% of the Biblical corpus, including the Great Isaiah Scroll
(1QIsa-a):
Pre-Samaritan: These are DSS manuscripts which reflect the textual
form found in the Samaritan Pentateuch, although the Samaritan Bible
itself is later and contains information not found in these earlier
scrolls, (e.g. God's holy mountain at Shechem rather than Jerusalem).
The
Qumran
Qumran witnesses—which are characterized by orthographic
corrections and harmonizations with parallel texts elsewhere in the
Pentateuch—comprise about 5% of the Biblical scrolls. (e.g.
4QpaleoExod-m)
Non-Aligned: This is a category which shows no consistent alignment
with any of the other four text-types. These number approximately 10%
of the Biblical scrolls, and include 4QDeut-b, 4QDeut-c, 4QDeut-h,
4QIsa-c, and 4QDan-a.[61][62][63]
The textual sources present a variety of readings. For example, Bastiaan Van Elderen compares three variations of Deuteronomy 32:43, the Song of Moses.[60]
Deuteronomy 32.43, Masoretic
Deuteronomy 32.43, Qumran
Deuteronomy 32.43, Septuagint
1 Shout for joy, O nations, with his people
2 For he will avenge the blood of his servants 3 And will render vengeance to his adversaries 4 And will purge his land, his people.
1 Shout for joy, O heavens, with him 2 And worship him, all you divine ones 3 For he will avenge the blood of his sons 4 And he will render vengeance to his adversaries 5 And he will recompense the ones hating him 6 And he purges the land of his people.
1 Shout for joy, O heavens, with him 2 And let all the sons of God worship him 3 Shout for joy, O nations, with his people 4 And let all the angels of God be strong in him 5 Because he avenges the blood of his sons 6 And he will avenge and recompense justice to his enemies 7 And he will recompense the ones hating 8 And the Lord will cleanse the land of his people.
Printed editions[edit] The texts of all printed editions are derived from the three recensions mentioned above, that of Origen, Lucian, or Hesychius.
The editio princeps is the Complutensian Polyglot. It was based on
manuscripts that are now lost and is one of the received texts used
for the KJV like Textus Receptus, and seems to transmit quite early
readings.[64]
Brian Walton Polyglot is one of the few versions that includes a
Septuagint
Septuagint not based on the Egyptian Alexandria type text such as
Vaticanus, Alexandrinus and Sinaiticus, but rather follows the vast
majority which extremely agree like the Complutensian Polyglot.
The Aldine edition (begun by Aldus Manutius) appeared at Venice in
1518. The text is closer to
Codex Vaticanus
Codex Vaticanus than the Complutensian.
The editor says he collated ancient manuscripts but does not specify
them. It has been reprinted several times.
The Roman or Sixtine Septuagint, which uses
Codex Vaticanus
Codex Vaticanus as the
base texts and various other later manuscripts for the lacunae in the
uncial manuscript. It was published in 1587 under the direction of
Cardinal Antonio Carafa, with the help of a group of Roman scholars
(Cardinal Gugliemo Sirleto,
Antonio Agelli and Petrus Morinus), by the
authority of Sixtus V, to assist the revisers who were preparing the
Latin
Latin
Vulgate
Vulgate edition ordered by the Council of Trent. It has become
the textus receptus of the Greek
Old Testament
Old Testament and has had many new
editions, such as that of Robert Holmes and James Parsons (Oxford,
1798–1827), the seven editions of Constantin von Tischendorf, which
appeared at Leipzig between 1850 and 1887, the last two, published
after the death of the author and revised by Nestle, the four editions
of
Henry Barclay Swete
Henry Barclay Swete (Cambridge, 1887–95, 1901, 1909), etc. A
detailed description of this edition has been made by H. B. Swete in
his An Introduction to the
Old Testament
Old Testament in Greek (1900),
pp. 174–182.
Grabe's edition was published at Oxford, from 1707 to 1720, and
reproduced, but imperfectly, the
Codex Alexandrinus
Codex Alexandrinus of London. For
partial editions, see Fulcran Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible,
1643 sqq.
Alfred Rahlfs, a longtime
Septuagint
Septuagint researcher at the University of
Göttingen, began a manual edition of the
Septuagint
Septuagint in 1917 or 1918.
The completed Septuaginta was published in 1935. It relies mainly on
Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, and Alexandrinus, and presents a critical
apparatus with variants from these and several other sources.[65]
The Göttingen
Septuagint
Septuagint (Vetus Testamentum Graecum: Auctoritate
Academiae Scientiarum Gottingensis editum) is a major critical
version, comprising multiple volumes published from 1931 to 2009 and
not yet complete (the largest missing parts are the history books
Joshua through Chronicles except Ruth, and the Solomonic books
Proverbs through Song of Songs). Its two critical apparatuses present
variant
Septuagint
Septuagint readings and variants from other Greek
versions.[66]
In 2006, a revision of Alfred Rahlfs's Septuaginta was published by
the German
Bible
Bible Society. This editio altera includes over a thousand
changes to the text and apparatus.[67]
Apostolic
Bible
Bible Polyglot contains a
Septuagint
Septuagint text derived mainly
from the agreement of any two of the Complutensian Polyglot, the
Sixtine, and the Aldine texts.[68]
English translations[edit]
The
Septuagint
Septuagint has been translated surprisingly few times into
English. The first one, which excluded the Apocrypha, was Charles
Thomson's in 1808, which was subsequently revised and enlarged by C.A.
Muses in 1954. Many complain how C.A. Muses has corrupted the
translation to match the Hebrew.[who?]
The translation of Sir Lancelot C. L. Brenton, published in 1851, is a
long-time standard. For most of the years since its publication it has
been the only one readily available, and has continually been in
print. It is based primarily upon the
Codex Vaticanus
Codex Vaticanus and contains the
Greek and English texts in parallel columns. Considering the dated
English of Brenton's translation, there is also a revision of the
Brenton
Septuagint
Septuagint available through Stauros Ministries, called The
Complete Apostles' Bible, translated by Paul W. Esposito, Th.D, and
released in 2007. [2]
A
New English Translation of the Septuagint
New English Translation of the Septuagint and the Other Greek
Translations Traditionally Included Under that Title (NETS), an
academic translation based on standard critical editions of the Greek
texts was published by the International Organization for Septuagint
and Cognate Studies (IOSCS). It was published by Oxford University
Press in October 2007. It used New Revised Standard version (which is
based on the Hebrew) as the base text.
The Apostolic
Bible
Bible Polyglot, published in 2003 is another, including
the Greek books of the Hebrew canon along with the Greek New
Testament, all numerically coded to the AB-Strong numbering system,
and set in monotonic orthography. Included in the printed edition is a
concordance and index.
The Orthodox Study
Bible
Bible was released in early 2008 with a new
translation of the
Septuagint
Septuagint based on the
Alfred Rahlfs edition of
the Greek text. To this base they brought two additional major
sources: first the Brenton translation of the
Septuagint
Septuagint from 1851,
and, second, Thomas Nelson Publishers granted use of the New King
James Version text in the places where the translation of the LXX
would match that of the Hebrew
Masoretic
Masoretic text. This edition includes
the
New Testament
New Testament as well, which also uses the New King James Version;
and it includes, further, extensive commentary from an Eastern
Orthodox perspective.[69]
Father Nicholas King, SJ has completed a Catholic translation of the
Septuagint
Septuagint into English. The work is available in either four separate
volumes or one single volume. Father King is a Jesuit priest who
lectures in
New Testament
New Testament Studies at Oxford University. The
translation began in 2010 and was finished in 2013; it is available
from Kevin Mayhew Publishers, entitled The
Old Testament
Old Testament (volumes 1
through 4), and The
Bible
Bible in hardcover and presentation editions.[3]
It contains a very useful mini commentary on each book which gives a
flavour of what is hoped to be the start of accessible, reasonably
priced individual commentaries for the general reader.
Brenton's Septuagint, Restored Names Version, (SRNV) is a two volume
editing primarily based on Sir Lancelot C. L. Brenton's translation.
The Hebrew Names restoration is based on the Westminster Leningrad
Codex with the prime focus being the restoration of the Divine Name.
It is rendered in Modern English yet remains faithful to Brenton's
translation. Additionally it features extensive Hebrew and Greek
footnotes. [4]
Orthodox England on the net is a translation not in book form but
online at http://orthodoxengland.org.uk/zot.htm. It used the King
James Version as the base text and corrects where it differs from the
Greek.
The
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox
Bible
Bible (EOB) (in progress) is an extensive
revision and correction of Brenton's translation which was primarily
based on Codex Vaticanus. Its language and syntax have been modernized
and simplified. It also includes extensive introductory material and
footnotes featuring significant inter-LXX and LXX/MT variants.
Promotion[edit]
In 2006 the International Organization for
Septuagint
Septuagint and Cognate
Studies (IOSCS) - a non-profit, learned society formed to promote
international research in and study of the
Septuagint
Septuagint and related
texts [70] - declared February 8 "International
Septuagint
Septuagint Day",[71] a
day to promote the discipline on campuses and in communities.[citation
needed] The Organization also publishes the "Journal of
Septuagint
Septuagint and
Cognate Studies" (JSCS).
See also[edit]
Bible
Bible portal
Brenton's English Translation of the Septuagint
Alfred Rahlfs—editor of a commonly distributed critical edition of
LXX.
La
Bible
Bible d'Alexandrie
Documentary hypothesis—discusses the theoretical recensional history
of the Torah/
Pentateuch
Pentateuch in Hebrew.
Tanakh
Tanakh at Qumran—some of the
Dead Sea Scrolls
Dead Sea Scrolls are witnesses to the
LXX text.
Septuagint
Septuagint manuscripts
Vulgate
Book
Book of Job in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts
Hellenistic Judaism
Notes[edit]
^ The canon of the original
Old Greek LXX is disputed. This table
reflects the canon of the
Old Testament
Old Testament as used currently in
Orthodoxy.
^ Βασιλειῶν (Basileiōn) is the genitive plural of
Βασιλεία (Basileia).
^ That is, Things set aside from Ἔσδρας Αʹ.
^ also called Τωβείτ or Τωβίθ in some sources.
^ or Tōbeit or Tōbith
^ Obdiou is genitive from "The vision of Obdias", which opens the
book.
^ Originally placed after
3 Maccabees
3 Maccabees and before Psalms, but placed in
an appendix of the Orthodox Canon
References[edit]
^ Nicole, Roger -
New Testament
New Testament Use of the
Old Testament
Old Testament Revelation
and the Bible, ed. Carl. F.H. Henry (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1958), pp.
137-151. The frequent use of the LXX, it must also be noted, did not
impose upon the
New Testament
New Testament authors the obligation to quote always
in accordance with this version.
^ "The quotations from the
Old Testament
Old Testament found in the New are in the
main taken from the Septuagint; and even where the citation is
indirect the influence of this version is clearly seen.""Bible
Translations – The Septuagint". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 10
February 2012.
^ a b "His quotations from Scripture, which are all taken, directly or
from memory, from the Greek version, betray no familiarity with the
original Hebrew text (...) Nor is there any indication in Paul's
writings or arguments that he had received the rabbinical training
ascribed to him by Christian writers (...)""Paul, the Apostle of the
Heathen". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
^ a b "[T]he
Pentateuch
Pentateuch was translated at the time of Philadelphus,
the second Ptolemy (285–247 B.C.[E.])""Bible
Translations – The Septuagint". JewishEncyclopedia.com.
Retrieved 29 October 2012.
^ a b Tractate Megillah, pages 9a-9b. The
Talmud
Talmud identifies fifteen
specific unusual translations made by the scholars.
^ "[T]he Egyptian papyri, which are abundant for this particular
period, ... have in a measure reinstated Aristeas (about
200 B.C.[E.]) in the opinion of scholars. Upon his "Letter to
Philocrates" the tradition as to the origin of the
Septuagint
Septuagint rests.
It is now believed that even though he may have been mistaken in some
points, his facts in general are worthy of credence (Abrahams, in
"Jew. Quart. Rev." xiv. 321). According to Aristeas, the Pentateuch
was translated at the time of Philadelphus, the second Ptolemy
(285–247 B.C.[E.]), which translation was encouraged by the
king and welcomed by the Jews of Alexandria. Grätz ("Gesch. der
Juden", 3d ed., iii. 615) stands alone in assigning it to the reign of
Philometor (181–146 B.C.[E.]). Whatever share the king may have
had in the work, it evidently satisfied a pressing need felt by the
Jewish community, among whom a knowledge of Hebrew was rapidly waning
before the demands of every-day life.""
Bible
Bible Translations – The
Septuagint". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Hellenism: Range of Hellenic Influence: "Except
in Egypt, Hellenic influence was nowhere stronger than on the eastern
shore of the Mediterranean. Greek cities arose there in continuation,
or in place, of the older Semitic foundations, and gradually changed
the aspect of the country."
^ a b c Karen H. Jobes and
Moises Silva (2001). Invitation to the
Septuagint. Paternoster Press. ISBN 1-84227-061-3.
^ Sundberg, in McDonald & Sanders, eds., The Canon Debate, p.72.
See Augustine, The City of God, 18.42, where Augustine says that "this
name ["Septuaginta"] has now become traditional", indicating that this
was a recent event. But Augustine offers no clue as to which of the
possible antecedents led to this development.
^ Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, for instance.
^ a b c d e f g h i Jennifer M. Dines, The Septuagint, Michael A.
Knibb, Ed., London: T&T Clark, 2004.
^ Davila, J (2008). "Aristeas to Philocrates". Summary of lecture by
Davila, February 11, 1999. University of St. Andrews, School of
Divinity. Retrieved 19 June 2011.
^ Flavius Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews.
^
William Whiston
William Whiston (1998). The Complete Works of Josephus. T. Nelson
Publishers. ISBN 0-7852-1426-7.
^ Augustine of Hippo, The City of God 18.42.
^ "(..)
Philo
Philo bases his citations from the
Bible
Bible on the Septuagint
version, though he has no scruple about modifying them or citing them
with much freedom.
Josephus
Josephus follows this translation closely.""Bible
Translations – The Septuagint". JewishEncyclopedia.com.
Retrieved 10 February 2012.
^ J.A.L. Lee, A Lexical Study of the
Septuagint
Septuagint Version of the
Pentateuch
Pentateuch (
Septuagint
Septuagint and Cognate Studies, 14. Chico, CA: Scholars
Press, 1983; Reprint SBL, 2006)
^ "The Septuagint". google.ru.
^ Joel Kalvesmaki, The Septuagint
^ Life after death: a history of the afterlife in the religions of the
West (2004), Anchor
Bible
Bible Reference Library, Alan F. Segal, p.363
^ Gilles Dorival, Marguerite Harl, and Olivier Munnich, La Bible
grecque des Septante: Du judaïsme hellénistique au christianisme
ancien (Paris: Cerfs, 1988), p.111
^ a b "[...] die griechische Bibelübersetzung, die einem
innerjüdischen Bedürfnis entsprang [...] [von den] Rabbinern zuerst
gerühmt (..) Später jedoch, als manche ungenaue Übertragung des
hebräischen Textes in der Septuaginta und Übersetzungsfehler die
Grundlage für hellenistische Irrlehren abgaben, lehnte man die
Septuaginta ab." Verband der Deutschen Juden (Hrsg.), neu hrsg. von
Walter Homolka, Walter Jacob, Tovia Ben Chorin: Die Lehren des
Judentums nach den Quellen; München, Knesebeck, 1999, Bd.3, S. 43ff
^ a b c d e f Ernst Würthwein, The Text of the Old Testament, trans.
Errol F. Rhodes, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. Eerdmans, 1995.
^ a b H. B. Swete, An Introduction to the
Old Testament
Old Testament in Greek,
revised by R.R. Ottley, 1914; reprint, Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson,
1989.
^ Hoffman,
Book
Book Review, 2004. Archived January 12, 2012, at the
Wayback Machine.
^ Paul Joüon, SJ, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew, trans. and revised by
T. Muraoka, vol. I, Rome: Editrice Pontificio Instituto Biblico, 2000.
^ Rick Grant Jones, Various Religious Topics, "Books of the
Septuagint", (Accessed 2006.9.5).
^ "The
Old Testament
Old Testament Canon and Apocrypha". BibleResearcher. Retrieved
27 November 2015.
^ "The translation, which shows at times a peculiar ignorance of
Hebrew usage, was evidently made from a codex which differed widely in
places from the text crystallized by the Masorah." "Bible
Translations – The Septuagint". JewishEncyclopedia.com.
Retrieved 10 February 2012.
^ "Two things, however, rendered the
Septuagint
Septuagint unwelcome in the long
run to the Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward
called the Masoretic) was too evident; and it therefore could not
serve as a basis for theological discussion or for homiletic
interpretation. This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had
been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith [Christianity] [...]
In course of time it came to be the canonical Greek
Bible
Bible [...] It
became part of the
Bible
Bible of the Christian Church.""
Bible
Bible Translations
– The Septuagint". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 10 February
2012.
^ Mishnah Sotah (7:2–4 and 8:1), among many others, discusses the
sacredness of Hebrew, as opposed to Aramaic or Greek. This is
comparable to the authority claimed for the original Arabic Koran
according to Islamic teaching.
^ Blocher, Henri (2004). "Helpful or Harmful? The "Apocrypha" and
Evangelical Theology". European Journal of Theology (13.2):
81–90.
^ Webster, William. "The
Old Testament
Old Testament Canon and the Apocrypha Part
3". Retrieved 29 November 2015.
^ Shamoun, Sam. "Are The Jewish Apocrypha Inspired Scripture? Pt. 4".
Answering Islam - A Christian-Muslim dialog. Answering Islam.
Retrieved 29 November 2015.
^ "NETS: Electronic Edition". Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. 2011-02-11.
Retrieved 13 August 2012.
^ a b Abegg, Martin; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (1999). The Dead Sea
Scroll Bible. HarperOne. ISBN 978-0-06-060064-8.
^
http://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/explore-the-archive/search#q=composition_type_parent_en:'Apocrypha'
AND manuscript_type_parent_en:'Non-Biblical Compositions'
^ Sanders, JA (1963), "Ps. 151 in 11QPss", Zeitschrift für die
Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 75: 73–86,
doi:10.1515/zatw.1963.75.1.73 , and slightly revised in Sanders,
JA (ed.), "The
Psalms
Psalms Scroll of Qumrân Cave 11 (11QPsa)", DJD, 4:
54–64 .
^ Abegg, Martin Jr; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (1999), The Dead Sea
Scrolls Bible, HarperCollins, pp. 585–86,
ISBN 0-06-060064-0 .
^ a b This article incorporates text from the 1903 Encyclopaedia
Biblica article "TEXT AND VERSIONS", a publication now in the
public domain.
^ Alexander Zvielli, Jerusalem Post, June 2009, pp. 37
^ Greek-speaking Judaism (see also Hellenistic Judaism), survived,
however, on a smaller scale into the medieval period. Cf. Natalio
Fernández Marcos, The
Septuagint
Septuagint in Context: Introduction to the
Greek Bible, Leiden: Brill, 2000.
^ "The translation, which shows at times a peculiar ignorance of
Hebrew usage, was evidently made from a codex which differed widely in
places from the text crystallized by the Masorah (..) Two things,
however, rendered the
Septuagint
Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the
Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward called the
Masoretic) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a
basis for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation. This
distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as
Sacred Scripture by the new faith [Christianity] (..) In course of
time it came to be the canonical Greek
Bible
Bible (..) It became part of
the
Bible
Bible of the Christian Church.""
Bible
Bible Translations – The
Septuagint". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
^ St. Jerome, Apology
Book
Book II.
^ "The quotations from the
Old Testament
Old Testament found in the New are in the
main taken from the Septuagint; and even where the citation is
indirect the influence of this version is clearly seen (..)""Bible
Translations – The Septuagint". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 10
February 2012.
^ Paulkovich, Michael (2012), No Meek Messiah, Spillix Publishing,
p. 24, ISBN 0988216116
^ Irenaeus, Against Herecies
Book
Book III.
^ Jerome, From Jerome, Letter LXXI (404 CE), NPNF1-01. The
Confessions and Letters of St. Augustin, with a Sketch of his Life and
Work, Phillip Schaff, Ed.
^ Rebenich, S.,
Jerome
Jerome (Routledge, 2013), p. 58.
ISBN 9781134638444
^ New Jerusalem
Bible
Bible Readers Edition, 1990: London, citing the
Standard Edition of 1985
^ "Life Application Bible" (NIV), 1988: Tyndale House Publishers,
using "Holy Bible" text, copyright International
Bible
Bible Society 1973
^ Timothy McLay, The Use of the
Septuagint
Septuagint in
New Testament
New Testament Research
ISBN 0-8028-6091-5.—The current standard introduction on the NT
& LXX.
^ Not in Orthodox Canon, but originally included in the LXX.
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/
^ Compare Dines, who is certain only of Symmachus being a truly new
version, with Würthwein, who considers only
Theodotion
Theodotion to be a
revision, and even then possibly of an earlier non-LXX version.
^ Due to the practice of burying
Torah
Torah scrolls invalidated for use by
age, commonly after 300–400 years.
^ Würthwein, op. cit., pp. 73 & 198.
^ See, Jinbachian, Some Semantically Significant Differences Between
the
Masoretic Text
Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, [1].
^ "Searching for the Better Text – Biblical Archaeology Society".
Bib-arch.org. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
^ Dr. Peter Flint. Curriculum Vitae. Trinity Western University.
Langley, BC, Canada. Accessed 26 March 2011.
^ a b Edwin Yamauchi, "Bastiaan Van Elderen, 1924– 2004", SBL Forum
Accessed 26 March 2011.
^ a b Tov, E. 2001. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew
Bible
Bible (2nd ed.)
Assen/Maastricht: Van Gocum; Philadelphia: Fortress Press. As cited in
Flint, Peter W. 2002. The
Bible
Bible and the
Dead Sea Scrolls
Dead Sea Scrolls as presented
in
Bible
Bible and computer: the Stellenbosch AIBI-6 Conference: proceedings
of the Association internationale
Bible
Bible et informatique, "From alpha
to byte", University of Stellenbosch, 17–21 July, 2000 Association
internationale
Bible
Bible et informatique. Conference, Johann Cook (ed.)
Leiden/Boston BRILL, 2002
^ Laurence Shiffman, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls, p. 172
^ Note that these percentages are disputed. Other scholars credit the
Proto-
Masoretic
Masoretic texts with only 40%, and posit larger contributions
from Qumran-style and non-aligned texts. The Canon Debate, McDonald
& Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 6: Questions of Canon through the
Dead Sea Scrolls
Dead Sea Scrolls by James C. VanderKam, page 94, citing private
communication with Emanuel Tov on biblical manuscripts:
Qumran
Qumran scribe
type c.25%, proto-
Masoretic Text
Masoretic Text c. 40%, pre-Samaritan texts c.5%,
texts close to the Hebrew model for the
Septuagint
Septuagint c.5% and nonaligned
c.25%.
^ Joseph Ziegler, "Der griechische Dodekepropheton-Text der
Complutenser Polyglotte", Biblica 25:297–310, cited in Würthwein.
^ Rahlfs, A. (Ed.). (1935/1979). Septuaginta. Stuttgart: Deutsche
Bibelgesellschaft.
^ "IOSCS: Critical Editions of Septuagint/
Old Greek Texts".
upenn.edu.
^ "Septuaginta".
^ "Introduction to the Apostolic Bible" (PDF). apostolicbible.com.
Retrieved 26 August 2015.
^ "Conciliar Press". Orthodox Study Bible. Retrieved 13 August
2012.
^ "IOSCS". Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
^ "International
Septuagint
Septuagint Day". The International Organization for
Septuagint
Septuagint and Cognate Studies. Retrieved 2016-03-30. In 2006, the
International Organization for
Septuagint
Septuagint and Cognate Studies
established February 8 as International
Septuagint
Septuagint Day, a day to
celebrate the
Septuagint
Septuagint and encourage its study.
Further reading[edit]
Timothy Michael Law, When God Spoke Greek, Oxford University Press,
2013.
Eberhard Bons and Jan Joosten, eds.
Septuagint
Septuagint Vocabulary:
Pre-History, Usage, Reception (Society of Biblical Literature; 2011)
211 pages; studies of the language used
Kantor, Mattis, The Jewish time line encyclopedia: A yearby-year
history from Creation to the present, Jason Aronson Inc., London, 1992
Alfred Rahlfs, Verzeichnis der griechischen Handschriften des Alten
Testaments, für das Septuaginta-Unternehmen, Göttingen 1914.
Makrakis, Apostolos, Proofs of the Authenticity of the Septuagint,
trans. by D. Cummings, Chicago, Ill.: Hellenic Christian Educational
Society, 1947. N.B.: Published and printed with its own pagination,
whether as issued separately or as included together with 2 other
works of A. Makrakis in a single volume published by the same film in
1950, wherein the translator's name is identified on the common t.p.
to that volume.
W. Emery Barnes, On the Influence of
Septuagint
Septuagint on the Peshitta, JTS
1901, pp. 186–197.
Andreas Juckel, Septuaginta and
Peshitta
Peshitta Jacob of Edessa quoting the
Old Testament
Old Testament in Ms BL Add 17134 JOURNAL OF SYRIAC STUDIES
Martin Hengel, The
Septuagint
Septuagint As Christian Scripture, Continuum
International Publishing Group, 2004.
Rajak, Tessa, Translation and survival: the Greek
Bible
Bible of the ancient
Jewish Diaspora (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).
Bart D. Ehrman. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the
Early Christian Writings; 608 pages,
Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press (July,
2011); ISBN 978-0-19-975753-4
Hyam Maccoby. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity;
238 pages, Barnes & Noble Books (1998);
ISBN 978-0-7607-0787-6
External links[edit]
Greek
Wikisource
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The complete Greek text of the modern Septuagint
General[edit]
The
Septuagint
Septuagint Online – Comprehensive site with scholarly discussion
and links to texts and translations
The
Septuagint
Septuagint Institute
Jewish Encyclopedia (1906):
Bible
Bible Translations
Catholic Encyclopedia (1913):
Septuagint
Septuagint Version
Catholic Encyclopedia (1913): Versions of the Bible
Codex: Resources and Links Relating to the Septuagint
Extensive chronological and canonical list of Early Papyri and
Manuscripts of the Septuagint
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Septuagint". Encyclopædia
Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Texts and translations[edit]
The Old Testament, by Nicholas King, in four volumes. Kevin Mayhew
Publishers. Analytical Translation of The
Old Testament
Old Testament (Septuagint),
by Gary F. Zeolla, 4 volumes with fifth and final volume on the
Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books to be published in 2015 by LuLu
Publishers. A complete work with literal word for word translation.
Septuagint/
Old Greek Texts and Translations LXX finder, listing dozens
of editions, both print and digital, in various languages and formats.
A good place to start.
Elpenor's Bilingual (Greek / English)
Septuagint
Septuagint
Old Testament
Old Testament Greek
text (full polytonic unicode version) and English translation side by
side. Greek text as used by the Orthodox Churches.
Titus Text Collection: Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpretes
(advanced research tool)
Septuagint
Septuagint published by the Church of Greece
Plain text of the whole LXX
Bible
Bible Resource Pages – contains
Septuagint
Septuagint texts (with diacritics)
side-by-side with English translations
The
Septuagint
Septuagint in Greek as a
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Word document. Introduction and
book abbreviations in Latin. Non-free Antioch (Vusillus Old Face,
Vusillus) TrueType font file required.
The
New English Translation of the Septuagint
New English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS), electronic
edition
EOB: Eastern / Greek Orthodox Bible: includes comprehensive
introductory materials dealing with Septuagintal issues and an Old
Testament which is an extensive revision of the Brenton with
footnotes.
The Holy Orthodox
Bible
Bible translated by Peter A. Papoutsis from the
Septuagint
Septuagint (LXX) and the Official Greek
New Testament
New Testament text of the
Ecumenical Patriarch.
LXX2012:
Septuagint
Septuagint in American English 2012 – The
Septuagint
Septuagint with
Apocrypha, translated from Greek to English by Sir Lancelot C. L.
Brenton and published in 1885, with some language updates by Michael
Paul Johnson in 2012 (American English)
The LXX and the NT[edit]
Septuagint
Septuagint references in NT by John Salza
An Apology for the
Septuagint
Septuagint – by Edward William Grinfield
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WorldCat Identities VIAF: 295128581 GND