Greek War of Independence that broke out in 1821 and the proclamation of the First Hellenic Republic
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Greece_(1822-1978).svg.png)
First Hellenic Republic in 1822 (preceded by the creation of the autonomous Septinsular Republic
Septinsular Republic in 1800), is known in Greek as Tourkokratia (Greek: Τουρκοκρατία, "Turkish rule"; English: "Turkocracy").[1] Some regions, however, like the Ionian islands, various temporary Venetian possessions of the Stato da Mar, or Mani peninsula in Peloponnese
.svg/500px-Location_map_of_Peloponnese_(Greece).svg.png)
Peloponnese did not become part of the Ottoman administration, although the latter was under Ottoman suzerainty. The Byzantine Empire, the remnant of the ancient Roman Empire
Roman Empire which ruled most of the Greek-speaking world for over 1100 years, had been fatally weakened since the sacking of Constantinople
Constantinople by the Latin Crusaders in 1204. The Ottoman advance into Greece
Greece was preceded by victory over the Serbs to its north. First, the Ottomans won the Battle of Maritsa
Battle of Maritsa in 1371. The Serb
Serb forces were then led by the King Vukašin of Serbia, the father of Prince Marko
Prince Marko and the co-ruler of the last emperor from the Serbian Nemanjic
Nemanjic dynasty. This was followed by another Ottoman victory in the 1389 Battle of Kosovo. With no further threat by the Serbs
Serbs and the subsequent Byzantine civil wars, the Ottomans besieged and took Constantinople
Constantinople in 1453 and then advanced southwards into Greece, capturing Athens
Athens in 1458. The Greeks held out in the Peloponnese
Peloponnese until 1460, and the Venetians and Genoese clung to some of the islands, but by the early 16th century all of mainland Greece
Greece and most of the Aegean islands were in Ottoman hands, excluding several port cities still held by the Venetians (Nafplio, Monemvasia, Parga
Parga and Methone the most important of them). The mountains of Greece
Greece were largely untouched, and were a refuge for Greeks who desired to flee Ottoman rule and engage in guerrilla warfare.[2] The Cyclades
Cyclades islands, in the middle of the Aegean, were officially annexed by the Ottomans in 1579, although they were under vassal status since the 1530s. Cyprus
Cyprus fell in 1571, and the Venetians retained Crete
Crete until 1669. The Ionian Islands
Ionian Islands were never ruled by the Ottomans, with the exception of Kefalonia
Kefalonia (from 1479 to 1481 and from 1485 to 1500), and remained under the rule of the Republic of Venice. It was in the Ionian Islands
Ionian Islands where modern Greek statehood was born, with the creation of the Republic of the Seven Islands in 1800. Ottoman Greece
Greece was a multiethnic society as apart from Greeks and Turks, there were many Jews, Italians
Italians (especially Venetians), Armenians, Serbs, Albanians, Roma (Gypsies), Bulgarians
Bulgarians etc.[3][need quotation to verify] However, the modern Western notion of multiculturalism, although at first glance appears to correspond to the system of millets, is considered to be incompatible with the Ottoman system.[4] The Greeks with the one hand were given some privileges and freedom; with the other they were exposed to a tyranny deriving from the malpractices of its administrative personnel over which the central government had only remote and incomplete control.[5] Despite losing their political independence, the Greeks remained dominant in the fields of commerce and business. The consolidation of Ottoman power in the 15th and 16th centuries rendered the Mediterranean safe for Greek shipping, and Greek shipowners became the maritime carriers of the Empire, making tremendous profits.[6] After the Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Lepanto
Battle of Lepanto however, Greek ships often became the target of vicious attacks by Catholic (especially Spanish and Maltese) pirates.[6] This period of Ottoman rule had a profound impact in Greek society, as new elites emerged. The Greek land-owning aristocracy that traditionally dominated the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire suffered a tragic fate, and was almost completely destroyed. The new leading class in Ottoman Greece
Greece were the prokritoi[7] (πρόκριτοι in Greek) called kocabaşis by the Ottomans. The prokritoi were essentially bureaucrats and tax collectors, and gained a negative reputation for corruption and nepotism. On the other hand, the Phanariots
Phanariots became prominent in the imperial capital of Constantinople
Constantinople as businessmen and diplomats, and the Greek Orthodox
Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarch
Ecumenical Patriarch rose to great power under the Sultan's protection, gaining religious control over the entire Orthodox population of the Empire, Greek, Αlbanian-speaking, Latin-speaking and Slavic.
Contents
1 Expansion 2 Ottoman rule
2.1 Administration 2.2 Economy 2.3 Religion 2.4 Taxation and the "tribute of children" 2.5 Influence to tradition
3 Emergence of Greek nationalism
3.1 Uprisings before 1821 3.2 Greek War of Independence
4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links
Expansion[edit]
After the fall of
Constantinople
Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, the
Despotate of the Morea
Despotate of the Morea was the last remnant of the
Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire to
hold out against the Ottomans. However, this, too, fell to the
Ottomans in 1460, completing the Ottoman conquest of mainland
Greece.[8]
While most of mainland
Greece
Greece and the Aegean islands was under Ottoman
control by the end of the 15th century,
Cyprus
Cyprus and
Crete
Crete remained
Venetian territory and did not fall to the Ottomans until 1571 and
1670 respectively. The only part of the Greek-speaking world that
escaped Ottoman rule was the Ionian Islands, which remained Venetian
until 1797.
Corfu
Corfu withstood three major sieges in 1537, 1571 and 1716
all of which resulted in the repulsion of the Ottomans.
Other areas that remained part of the Venetian
Stato da Màr
Stato da Màr include
Nafplio
Nafplio and
Monemvasia
Monemvasia until 1540, the Duchy of the Archipelago,
centered on the islands of
Naxos
Naxos and
Paros
Paros until 1579,
Sifnos
Sifnos until
1617 and
Tinos
Tinos until 1715.
Sultan
Sultan Muhhamad II's entry into Constantinople
Ottoman
Janissaries
Janissaries and defending
Knights of Saint John
.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Order_of_St._John_(various).svg.png)
Knights of Saint John at the Siege
of
Rhodes
Rhodes (1522)
The "Battle of Preveza" (1538) by Ohannes Umed Behzad
The "Battle of Lepanto" (1571) prevented the Ottomans from expanding further
Siege of Candia
Siege of Candia (1648-1669)
Ottoman rule[edit]
A map of the territorial expansion of the
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire from 1307 to
1683.
The consolidation of Ottoman rule was followed by two distinct trends
of Greek migration. The first entailed Greek intellectuals, such as
Basilios Bessarion, Georgius
Plethon
Plethon Gemistos and Marcos Mousouros,
migrating to other parts of Western Europe and influencing the advent
of the
Renaissance
Renaissance (though the large scale migration of Greeks to
other parts of Europe, most notably Italian university cities, began
far earlier, following the Crusader capture of Constantinople[9]).
This trend had also effect on the creation of the modern Greek
diaspora.
The second entailed Greeks leaving the plains of the Greek peninsula
and resettling in the mountains, where the rugged landscape made it
hard for the Ottomans to establish either military or administrative
presence.[10]
Administration[edit]
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See also:
Phanariotes
Phanariotes and Kodjabashis
The
Sultan
Sultan sat at the apex of the government of the Ottoman Empire.
Although he had the trappings of an absolute ruler, he was actually
bound by tradition and convention.[11] These restrictions imposed by
tradition were mainly of a religious nature. Indeed, the Qur'an was
the main restriction on absolute rule by the sultan and in this way,
the Qur'an served as a "constitution."[11]
Ottoman rule of the provinces was characterized by two main functions.
The local administrators within the provinces were to maintain a
military establishment and to collect taxes.[12] The military
establishment was feudal in character.[12] The Sultan's cavalry were
allotted land, either large allotments or small allotments based on
the rank of the individual cavalryman. All non-Muslims were forbidden
to ride a horse which made traveling more difficult.[12] The Ottomans
divided
Greece
Greece into six sanjaks, each ruled by a Sanjakbey accountable
to the Sultan, who established his capital in
Constantinople
Constantinople in 1453.
"The Hyperian Fountain at Pherae", Edward Dodwell, 1821.
View of the
Phanarion
Phanarion quarter, the historical centre of the Greek
community of
Constantinople
Constantinople in Ottoman times, ca. 1900
The conquered land was parceled out to Ottoman soldiers, who held it
as feudal fiefs (timars and ziamets) directly under the Sultan's
authority. This land could not be sold or inherited, but reverted to
the Sultan's possession when the fief-holder (timariot) died.[12]
During their life-times they served as cavalrymen in the Sultan's
army, living well on the proceeds of their estates with the land being
tilled largely by peasants.[12] Many Ottoman timariots were descended
from the pre-Ottoman Christian nobility, and shifted their allegiance
to the Ottomans following the conquest of the Balkans. Conversion to
Islam was not a requirement, and as late as the fifteenth century many
timariots were known to be Christian, although their numbers gradually
decreased over time.[13]
The Ottomans basically installed this feudal system right over the top
of the existing system of peasant tenure. The peasantry remained in
possession of their own land and their tenure over their plot of land
remained hereditary and inalienable.[12] Nor was any military service
ever imposed on the peasant by the Ottoman government. All non-Muslims
were in theory forbidden from carrying arms, but this was ignored.
Indeed, in regions such as Crete, almost every man carried arms.
Greek Christian families were, however, subject to a system of
conscription known as the devshirme. The Ottomans required that male
children from Christian peasant villages be conscripted and enrolled
in the corps of
Janissaries
Janissaries for military training in the Sultan's
army.[12] Such recruitment was sporadic, and the proportion of
children conscripted varied from region to region. The practice
largely came to an end by the middle of the seventeenth century.
Under the Ottoman system of government, Greek society was at the same
time fostered and restricted. With one hand the Turkish regime gave
privileges and freedom to its subject people; with the other it
imposed a tyranny deriving from the malpractices of its administrative
personnel over which it exercised only remote and incomplete control.
In fact the “rayahs” were downtrodden and exposed to the vagaries
of Turkish administration and sometimes to the Greek landlords. The
term rayah came to denote an underprivileged, tax-ridden and socially
inferior population.[14]
Economy[edit]
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The Greek ship Panagia tis Ydras, built 1793, flying the Greco-Ottoman flag.
Engraving of a Greek merchant (16th century)
The economic situation of the majority of
Greece
Greece deteriorated heavily
during the Ottoman era of the country. Life became ruralized and
militarized. Heavy burdens of taxation were placed on the Christian
population, and many Greeks were reduced to subsistence farming
whereas during prior eras the region had been heavily developed and
urbanized. The exception to this rule was in
Constantinople
Constantinople and the
Venetian-held Ionian islands, where many Greeks lived in
prosperity.[15][better source needed]
After about 1600, the Ottomans resorted to military rule in parts of
Greece, which provoked further resistance, and also led to economic
dislocation and accelerated population decline. Ottoman landholdings,
previously fiefs held directly from the Sultan, became hereditary
estates (chifliks), which could be sold or bequeathed to heirs. The
new class of Ottoman landlords reduced the hitherto free Greek farmers
to serfdom, leading to depopulation of the plains, and to the flight
of many people to the mountains, in order to escape poverty.[citation
needed]
Religion[edit]
Main articles:
Rum Millet
Rum Millet and Ecumenical Patriarchate of
Constantinople
The
Sultan
Sultan regarded the
Ecumenical Patriarch
Ecumenical Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox
Church as the leader of all Orthodox, Greeks or not, within the
empire. The Patriarch was accountable to the
Sultan
Sultan for the good
behavior of the Orthodox population, and in exchange he was given wide
powers over the Orthodox communities, including the non-Greek Slavic
peoples. The Patriarch controlled the courts and the schools, as well
as the Church, throughout the Greek communities of the empire. This
made Orthodox priests, together with the local magnates, called
Prokritoi or Dimogerontes, the effective rulers of Greek towns and
cities. Some Greek towns, such as
Athens
Athens and Rhodes, retained
municipal self-government, while others were put under Ottoman
governors. Several areas, such as the
Mani Peninsula
Mani Peninsula in the
Peloponnese, and parts of
Crete
Crete (Sfakia) and Epirus, remained
virtually independent. During the frequent Ottoman–Venetian Wars,
the Greeks sided with the Venetians against the Ottomans, with a few
exceptions.[16] The Orthodox Church assisted greatly in the
preservation of the Greek heritage, and adherence to the Greek
Orthodox faith became increasingly a mark of Greek nationality.
The emblem of the
Ecumenical Patriarch
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.
As a rule, the Ottomans did not require the Greeks to become Muslims,
although many did so on a superficial level in order to avert the
socioeconomic hardships of Ottoman rule[17] or because of the alleged
corruption of the Greek clergy.[18] The regions of
Greece
Greece which had
the largest concentrations of Ottoman
Greek Muslims
Greek Muslims were Macedonia,
notably the Vallaades, neighboring Epirus, and
Crete
Crete (see Cretan
Muslims). Under the millet logic, Greek Muslims, despite often
retaining elements of their Greek culture and language, were
classified simply as "Muslim", although most
Greek Orthodox
Greek Orthodox Christians
deemed them to have "turned-Turk" and therefore saw them as traitors
to their original ethno-religious communities.[19]
Some Greeks either became New Martyrs, such as Saint Efraim the
Neo-Martyr or Saint Demetrios the Neo-martyr while others became
Crypto-Christians (
Greek Muslims
Greek Muslims who were secret practitioners of the
Greek Orthodox
Greek Orthodox faith) in order to avoid heavy taxes and at the same
time express their identity by maintaining their secret ties to the
Greek Orthodox
Greek Orthodox Church.
Crypto-Christians officially ran the risk of
being killed if they were caught practicing a non-
Muslim
Muslim religion once
they converted to Islam. There were also instances of Greeks from
theocratic or Byzantine nobility embracing Islam such as John Tzelepes
Komnenos and Misac Palaeologos Pasha.[19]
Byzantine historians noted the liberal and generous nature of Ottoman
Sultans. Bayezid I, according to a Byzantine historian, freely
admitted Christians into his society while
Murad II
Murad II set out reforms of
abuses that was prevalent under Greek rulers.[20] Persecutions of
Christians did nevertheless take place under the reign of Selim I
(1512-1520), known as Selim the Grim, who attempted to stamp out
Christianity from the Ottoman Empire. Selim ordered the confiscation
of all Christian churches, and while this order was later rescinded,
Christians were heavily persecuted during his era.[21]
Taxation and the "tribute of children"[edit]
See also: Greek Muslims
A
Muslim
Muslim Greek
Mamluk
Mamluk (Louis Dupré, oil on canvas, 1825)
Greeks paid a land tax and a heavy tax on trade, the latter taking
advantage of the wealthy Greeks to fill the state coffers.[22] Greeks,
like other Christians, were also made to pay the jizya, or Islamic
poll-tax which all non-Muslims in the empire were forced to pay
instead of the
Zakat
Zakat that Muslims must pay as part of the 5 pillars of
Islam. Failure to pay the jizya could result in the pledge of
protection of the Christian's life and property becoming void, facing
the alternatives of conversion; enslavement or death.[23]
Like in the rest of the Ottoman Empire, Greeks had to carry a receipt
certifying their payment of jizya at all times or be subject to
imprisonment. Most Greeks did not have to serve in the Sultan's army,
but the young boys that were taken away and converted to Islam were
made to serve in the Ottoman military. In addition, girls were taken
in order to serve as odalisques in harems.[24][25][page needed]
These practices are called the "tribute of children" (devshirmeh) (in
Greek παιδομάζωμα paidomazoma, meaning "child gathering"),
whereby every Christian community was required to give one son in five
to be raised as a
Muslim
Muslim and enrolled in the corps of Janissaries,
elite units of the Ottoman army. There was much resistance to this.
For example, Greek folklore tells of mothers crippling their sons to
avoid their abduction. Nevertheless, entrance into the corps
(accompanied by conversion to Islam) offered Greek boys the
opportunity to advance as high as governor or even Grand Vizier.
Opposition of the Greek populace to taxing or paidomazoma resulted in
grave consequences. For example, in 1705 an Ottoman official was sent
from Naoussa in Macedonia to search and conscript new
Janissaries
Janissaries and
was killed by Greek rebels who resisted the burden of the devshirmeh.
The rebels were subsequently beheaded and their severed heads were
displayed in the city of Thessaloniki.[26] In some cases, it was
greatly feared as Greek families would often have to relinquish their
own sons who would convert and return later as their oppressors. In
other cases, the families bribed the officers to ensure that their
children got a better life as a government officer.[27]
Influence to tradition[edit]
See also: Greek folk music, Rebetiko, Klephts, and Armatoloi
After the 16th century, many Greek folk songs (dimotika) were produced
and inspired from the way of life of the Greek people, brigands and
the armed conflicts during the centuries of Ottoman rule. Klephtic
songs (Greek: Κλέφτικα τραγούδια), or ballads, are a
subgenre of the
Greek folk music
Greek folk music genre and are thematically oriented
on the life of the klephts.[28] Prominent conflicts were immortalised
in several folk tales and songs, such as the epic ballad To tragoudi
tou Daskalogianni of 1786, about the resistance warfare under
Daskalogiannis.[29]
Emergence of Greek nationalism[edit]
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Leonardos Philaras
Leonardos Philaras (c. 1595 – 1673) was a Greek scholar born in
Athens,[30] and an early supporter of Greek liberation from Ottoman
rule, spending much of his career in persuading Western European
intellectuals to support Greek Independence.[31]
Rigas Feraios, forerunner of the Greek War of Independence
Over the course of the eighteenth century Ottoman landholdings,
previously fiefs held directly from the Sultan, became hereditary
estates (chifliks), which could be sold or bequeathed to heirs. The
new class of Ottoman landlords reduced the hitherto free Greek
peasants to serfdom, leading to further poverty and depopulation in
the plains.[citation needed]
On the other hand, the position of educated and privileged Greeks
within the
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire improved greatly in the 17th and 18th
centuries.[32] From the late 1600s Greeks began to fill some of the
highest and most important offices of the Ottoman state. The
Phanariotes, a class of wealthy Greeks who lived in the Phanar
district of Constantinople, became increasingly powerful. Their
travels to Western Europe as merchants or diplomats brought them into
contact with advanced ideas of liberalism and nationalism, and it was
among the
Phanariotes
Phanariotes that the modern Greek nationalist movement was
born. Many Greek merchants and travelers were influenced by the ideas
of the
French revolution
French revolution and a new Age of Greek Enlightenment was
initiated at the beginning of the 19th century in many Ottoman-ruled
Greek cities and towns.[citation needed]
Greek nationalism was also stimulated by agents of Catherine the
Great, the Orthodox ruler of the Russian Empire, who hoped to acquire
Ottoman territory, including
Constantinople
Constantinople itself, by inciting a
Christian rebellion against the Ottomans. However, during the
Russian-Ottoman War which broke out in 1768, the Greeks did not rebel,
disillusioning their Russian patrons. The Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji
(1774) gave Russia the right to make "representations" to the Sultan
in defense of his Orthodox subjects, and the Russians began to
interfere regularly in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire.
This, combined with the new ideas let loose by the French Revolution
of 1789, began to reconnect the Greeks with the outside world and led
to the development of an active nationalist movement, one of the most
progressive of the time.
Greece
Greece was peripherally involved in the Napoleonic Wars, but one
episode had important consequences. When the French under Napoleon
Bonaparte seized
Venice
Venice in 1797, they also acquired the Ionian
Islands, thus ending the four hundredth year of Venetian rule over the
Ionian Islands.[33][34] The islands were elevated to the status of a
French dependency called the Septinsular Republic, which possessed
local autonomy. This was the first time Greeks had governed themselves
since the fall of Trebizond in 1461.
Among those who held office in the islands was John Capodistria,
destined to become independent Greece's first head of state. By the
end of the
Napoleonic Wars
Napoleonic Wars in 1815,
Greece
Greece had re-emerged from its
centuries of isolation. British and French writers and artists began
to visit the country, and wealthy Europeans began to collect Greek
antiquities. These "philhellenes" were to play an important role in
mobilizing support for Greek independence.
Uprisings before 1821[edit]
Battle of
Chios
Chios (Chesma), during the Orlov Revolt, by Ivan Aivazovsky
(1848)
Greeks in various places of the Greek peninsula would at times rise up
against Ottoman rule, mainly while taking advantage of wars the
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire would engage in. Those uprisings were of mixed scale
and impact. During the Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479), the
Maniot Kladas brothers, Krokodelos and Epifani, were leading bands of
stratioti on behalf of
Venice
Venice against the Turks in Southern
Peloponnese. They put Vardounia and their lands into Venetian
possession, for which Epifani then acted as governor.[35]
Local, quickly-crushed revolts such as the
Epirus
Epirus peasant revolts of
1600 and 1611 would occur throughout the peninsula.[36]
The success of the battle by the Holy League triggered uprisings in
places of the peninsula such as
Phocis
Phocis (recorded in the Chronicle of
Galaxeidi) and the Peloponnese, led by the Melissinos brothers and
others. All of these revolts were crushed by the following year.[37]
During the Cretan War (1645–1669), the
Maniots
Maniots would aid Francesco
Morosini and the Venetians in the Peloponnese.[38] Greek irregulars
also aided the Venetians through the
Morean War
Morean War in their operations on
the
Ionian Sea
Ionian Sea and Peloponnese.[39]
A major uprising during that period was the
Orlov Revolt
_and_Orlov_Revolt_(1770).svg/440px-Map_of_the_Russo-Turkish_War_(1768–1774)_and_Orlov_Revolt_(1770).svg.png)
Orlov Revolt (Greek:
Ορλωφικά) which took place during the Russo-Turkish War
(1768–1774) and triggered armed unrest in both the Greek mainland
and the islands.[40] In 1778, a Greek fleet of seventy vessels
assembled by
Lambros Katsonis
Lambros Katsonis which harassed the Turkish squadrons in
the Aegean sea, captured the island of
Kastelorizo
Kastelorizo and engaged the
Turkish fleet in naval battles until 1790.[41][42]
Greek War of Independence[edit]
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Main article: Greek War of Independence
"The destruction of the Ottoman flagship by Kanaris" by Nikiphoros Lytras.
A secret Greek nationalist organization called the "Friendly Society"
or "Company of Friends" (Filiki Eteria) was formed in
Odessa
Odessa in 1814.
The members of the organization planned a rebellion with the support
of wealthy Greek exile communities in Britain and the United States.
They also gained support from sympathizers in Western Europe, as well
as covert assistance from Russia. The organization secured
Capodistria, who became Russian Foreign Minister after leaving the
Ionian Islands, as the leader of the planned revolt. On March 25 (now
Greek Independence Day) 1821, the Orthodox Bishop Germanos of Patras
proclaimed a national uprising.[43][44]
Simultaneous risings were planned across Greece, including in
Macedonia, Crete, and Cyprus. With the initial advantage of surprise,
aided by Ottoman inefficiency and the Ottomans' fight against Ali
Pasha of Tepelen, the Greeks succeeded in capturing the Peloponnese
and some other areas. Some of the first Greek actions were taken
against unarmed Ottoman settlements, with about 40% of Turkish and
Albanian
Muslim
Muslim residents of the
Peloponnese
Peloponnese killed outright, and the
rest fleeing the area or being deported.[45]
The Ottomans recovered, and retaliated in turn with savagery,
massacring the Greek population of
Chios
Chios and other towns. This worked
to their disadvantage by provoking further sympathy for the Greeks in
Britain and France, although the British and French governments
suspected that the uprising was a Russian plot to seize
Greece
Greece and
possibly
Constantinople
Constantinople from the Ottomans.[citation needed] The Greeks
were unable to establish a strong government in the areas they
controlled, and fell to fighting amongst themselves. Inconclusive
fighting between Greeks and Ottomans continued until 1825 when the
Sultan
Sultan sent a powerful fleet and army from
Egypt
Egypt to suppress the
revolution.
The atrocities that accompanied this expedition, together with
sympathy aroused by the death of the poet and leading philhellene Lord
Byron at
Messolongi
Messolongi in 1824, eventually led the Great Powers to
intervene. In October 1827, the British, French and Russian fleets, on
the initiative of local commanders but with the tacit approval of
their governments destroyed the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of
Navarino. This was the decisive moment in the war of independence.
In October 1828, the French landed troops in the
Peloponnese
Peloponnese to stop
the Ottoman atrocities. Under their protection, the Greeks were able
to regroup and form a new government. They then advanced to seize as
much territory as possible before the Western Powers imposed a
ceasefire.
A conference in
London
London in March 1829 proposed an independent Greek
state with a northern frontier running from Arta to Volos, and
including only
Euboia
Euboia and the
Cyclades
Cyclades among the islands. The Greeks
were disappointed at these restricted frontiers, but were in no
position to resist the will of Britain, France and Russia, who had
contributed mightily to Greek independence. By the Convention of May
11, 1832,
Greece
Greece was finally recognized as a sovereign state.
When the Ottomans finally granted the Greeks their independence, a
multi-power treaty was formally established in 1830. Capodistria, who
had been Greece's unrecognized head of state since 1828, was
assassinated by the
Mavromichalis family
Mavromichalis family in October 1831. To prevent
further experiments in republican government, the Great Powers,
especially Russia, insisted that
Greece
Greece be a monarchy, and the
Bavarian Prince Otto, was chosen to be its first king.
See also[edit]
Greece
Greece portal
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire portal
Dragomans
Giaour
Greek Muslims
Ionian Islands
Ionian Islands under Venetian rule
Phanariotes
Rayah
Sipahis
Timeline of Orthodoxy in
Greece
Greece (1453–1821)
References[edit]
^ Bruce Merry, Encyclopedia of Modern Greek Literature, oTurkocracy,
p. 442.
^ World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. 2009. p. 1478.
ISBN 0-7614-7902-3. The klephts were descendants of Greeks who
fled into the mountains to avoid the Turks in the fifteenth century
and who remained active as brigands into the nineteenth century.
^ Mark Mazower, Salonica, city of ghosts: Christians, Muslims, and
Jews, 1430-1950.
^ Maurus Reinkowski, “Ottoman “Multiculturalism”? The Example of
the Confessional System in Lebanon”. Lecture , Istanbul, 1997.
Edited by the Orient-Institut der Deutschen Morgenlandischen
Gesellschaft, Beirut,1999, pp. 15, 16.
^ Douglas Dakin, The Greek Struggle for Independence, 1821-1833.
University of California Press, p. 16.
^ a b http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i9187.pdf
^ Clogg, 2002[page needed]
^ "
Greece
Greece During the Byzantine Period: The
Peloponnese
Peloponnese advances".
britannica.com. Online Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 April
2012.
^ Treadgold, Warren. History of Byzantine State and Society. Stanford
University Press, 1997.[page needed]
^ Vacalopoulos, p. 45. "The Greeks never lost their desire to escape
from the heavy hand of the Turks, bad government, the impressment of
their children, the increasingly heavy taxation, and the sundry
caprices of the conqueror. Indeed, anyone studying the last two
centuries of Byzantine rule cannot help being struck by the propensity
of the Greeks to flee misfortune. The routes they chiefly took were:
first, to the predominantly Greek territories, which were either still
free or Frankish-controlled (that is to say, the Venetian fortresses
in the Despotate of Morea, as well as in the Aegean and Ionian
Islands) or else to Italy and the West generally; second, to remote
mountain districts in the interior where the conqueror's yoke was not
yet felt."
^ a b Woodhouse, C. M. (1998). Modern Greece: A Short History. London:
Faber & Faber Pub. p. 100. ISBN 978-0571197941.
^ a b c d e f g C. M. Woodhouse, Modern Greece: A Short History, p.
101.
^ Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany:
SUNY Press. pp. 90–2. ISBN 0-7914-5636-6.
^ Douglas Dakin, 1973, p. 16.
^ Michał Bzinkowski, Eleuthería ē Thánatos!: The idea of freedom
in modern Greek poetry during the war of independence in 19th century.
Dionysios Solomos’ “Hymn to Liberty”
^ For example, during the Ottoman conquest of the Morea in 1715, local
Greeks supplied the Ottomans and refused to join the Venetian army due
to feared future reprisals by the Ottomans. (Stavrianos, L.S. The
Balkans since 1453, p. 181).
^
Crypto-Christians of the Trabzon Region of Pontos
^ The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim
faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg. 143
^ a b The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the
Muslim
Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg. 137-138
^ The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim
faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg. 128
^ Paroulakis, p. 11.
^ Douglas Dakin,the Greek struggle for independence, 1972
^ James E. Lindsay Daily life in the medieval Islamic world,
(Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005) p.121
^ Waterfield, Robert (2005). Athens: A History, From Ancient Ideal To
Modern City. Basic Books. p. 285. ISBN 0-465-09063-X.
^ Madeline C. Zilfi Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire
Cambridge University Press, 2010
^ Vasdravellis, I. Οι Μακεδόνες κατά την
Επανάστασιν του 1821 (The Macedonians during the
Revolution of 1821), 3rd improved edition, Thessaloniki: Society of
Macedonian Studies, 1967.[page needed]
^ Shaw, p. 114.
^ Mittheilungen aus der Geschichte und Dichtung der Neu-Griechen.
Zweiter Band. Coblenz: Jacob Hölscher. 1825.
^ Roderick Beaton Folk Poetry of Modern
Greece
Greece 248 pages Publisher:
Cambridge University Press (May 20, 2004) ISBN 0-521-60420-6
ISBN 978-0521604208
^ Hutton, James (1946). The Greek anthology in France and in the Latin
writers of the Netherlands to the year 1800 Volume 28. Cornell
University Press. p. 188. OCLC 3305912. LEONARD PHILARAS or
VILLERET (c. 1595–1673) Philaras was born in
Athens
Athens of good family
and spent his childhood there. His youth was passed in Rome, where he
was educated, and his manhood
^ Merry, Bruce (2004). Encyclopedia of modern Greek literature.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 442. ISBN 0-313-30813-6.
Leonardos Filaras (1595–1673) devoted much of his career to coaxing
Western European intellectuals to support Greek liberation. Two
letters from Milton (1608–1674) attest Filaras’s patriotic
crusade.
^ Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789-1848, Part 1,
Chapter 7, II, pp. 140–142.
^ Davy, John (1842). Notes and observations on the
Ionian Islands
Ionian Islands and
Malta. Smith, Elder. pp. 27–28.
^ American Baptist Foreign Mission Society (1848). The Missionary
magazine. American Baptist Missionary Union. p. 25.
^ Longnon, J. 1949. Chronique de Morée: Livre de la conqueste de la
princée de l’Amorée, 1204-1305. Paris.
^ Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall: Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches: Bd.
1574-1623, p. 442; note a. "Prete scorticato, la pelle sua piena di
paglia portata in Constantinopoli con molte teste dei figli
d'Albanesi, che avevano intelligenza colli Spagnoli"[1]
^ Απόστολου Βακαλόπουλου, Ιστορία του
Νέου Ελληνισμού, Γ’ τομ., Θεσσαλονίκη
1968
^ Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1991), Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the
Seventeenth Century, DIANE Publishing p189
^ Finlay, George (1856). The
History of Greece
History of Greece under Othoman and
Venetian Domination. London: William Blackwood and Sons. p 210-3
^ George Childs Kohn (Editor) Dictionary of Wars Archived 2013-11-09
at the Wayback Machine. 650 pages ISBN 1-57958-204-4
ISBN 978-1579582043 Page 155
^ Finley, The history of
Greece
Greece under Othman and Venetian Domination,
1856 pp. 330-334
^ Dakin, Douglas The Greek Struggle for Independence, 1821–1833,
University of California Press, (1973) pp. 26–27
^ "Greek Independence Day". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
The Greek revolt was precipitated on March 25, 1821, when Bishop
Germanos of Patras
Germanos of Patras raised the flag of revolution over the Monastery of
Agia Lavra in the Peloponnese. The cry “Freedom or Death” became
the motto of the revolution. The Greeks experienced early successes on
the battlefield, including the capture of
Athens
Athens in June 1822, but
infighting ensued.
^ McManners, John (2001). The Oxford illustrated history of
Christianity. Oxford University Press. pp. 521–524.
ISBN 0-19-285439-9. The Greek uprising and the church. Bishop
Germanos of old
Patras
Patras blesses the Greek banner at the outset of the
national revolt against the Ottomans on 25 March 1821. The solemnity
of the scene was enhanced two decades later in this painting by T.
Vryzakis….The fact that one of the Greek bishops, Germanos of Old
Patras, had enthusiastically blessed the Greek uprising at the onset
(25 March 1821) and had thereby helped to unleash a holy war, was not
to gain the church a satisfactory, let alone a dominant, role in the
new order of things.
^ Jelavich, p. 217.
Sources[edit]
Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire,
1300-1923. New York: Basic Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
Hobsbawm, Eric John. The Age of Revolution. New American Library,
1962. ISBN 0-451-62720-2.
Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans, 18th and 19th Centuries.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-521-27458-3.
Paroulakis, Peter H. The Greek War of Independence. Hellenic
International Press, 1984.
Shaw, Stanford. History of the
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey:
Volume I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Vacalopoulos, Apostolis. The Greek Nation, 1453–1669. Rutgers
University Press, 1976.
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