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Contents
1 Etymology 2 History
2.1
Hinduism
Hinduism and
Buddhism
Buddhism in Kashmir
2.2
Shah Mir
Shah Mir Dynasty
2.3 Mughal rule
2.4 Afghan rule
2.5 Sikh rule
2.6 Princely state
2.7 1947 and 1948
2.8 Current status and political divisions
3 Demographics 4 Economy
4.1 Transport
5 See also 6 Notes 7 Bibliography 8 Historical sources 9 External links
Etymology[edit]
The
Sanskrit
Sanskrit word for
Kashmir
Kashmir was káśmīra.[9] The Nilamata Purana
describes the Valley's origin from the waters, a lake called
Sati-saras.[10][11] A popular, but uncertain, local etymology of
Kashmira is that it is land desiccated from water.[12]
An alternative, but also uncertain, etymology derives the name from
the name of the sage
Kashyapa
Kashyapa who is believed to have settled people
in this land. Accordingly,
Kashmir
Kashmir would be derived from either
kashyapa-mir (Kashyapa's Lake) or kashyapa-meru (Kashyapa's
Mountain).[12]
The Ancient Greeks called the region Kasperia which has been
identified with Kaspapyros of
Hecataeus of Miletus
Hecataeus of Miletus (apud Stephanus of
Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of
Herodotus
Herodotus (3.102, 4.44).
Kashmir
Kashmir is also
believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria.[13]
Cashmere is an archaic spelling of present-Kashmir, and in some
countries it is still spelled this way.
In the Kashmiri language,
Kashmir
Kashmir itself is known as Kasheer.[14]
History[edit]
Main article: History of Kashmir
Further information: Timeline of the
Kashmir conflict
Kashmir conflict and Kashmir
conflict
Hinduism
Hinduism and
Buddhism
Buddhism in Kashmir[edit]
Further information:
Buddhism
Buddhism in
Kashmir
Kashmir and
Kashmir
Kashmir Shaivism
Surya
Surya temple at Martand, photographed by John Burke, 1868.
Martand
Martand Sun temple, built in 8th-century CE in Anantnag,
Jammu
Jammu and
Kashmir
Kashmir is dedicated to Mārtanda.
This general view of the unexcavated
Buddhist
Buddhist stupa near Baramulla,
with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with
measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868. The stupa, which
was later excavated, dates to 500 CE.
During ancient and medieval period,
Kashmir
Kashmir has been an important
centre for the development of a Hindu-
Buddhist
Buddhist syncretism, in which
Madhyamaka
Madhyamaka and
Yogachara
Yogachara were blended with
Shaivism
Shaivism and Advaita
Vedanta. The
Buddhist
Buddhist Mauryan emperor
Ashoka
Ashoka is often credited with
having founded the old capital of Kashmir, Shrinagari, now ruins on
the outskirts of modern Srinagar.
Kashmir
Kashmir was long to be a stronghold
of Buddhism.[15] As a
Buddhist
Buddhist seat of learning, the Sarvastivada
school strongly influenced Kashmir.[16] East and Central Asian
Buddhist
Buddhist monks are recorded as having visited the kingdom. In the late
4th century CE, the famous Kuchanese monk Kumārajīva, born to an
Indian noble family, studied Dīrghāgama and Madhyāgama in Kashmir
under Bandhudatta. He later became a prolific translator who helped
take
Buddhism
Buddhism to China. His mother Jīva is thought to have retired to
Kashmir. Vimalākṣa, a Sarvāstivādan
Buddhist
Buddhist monk, travelled from
Kashmir
Kashmir to
Kucha
Kucha and there instructed
Kumārajīva
Kumārajīva in the
Vinayapiṭaka.
Karkoṭa Empire
Karkoṭa Empire (625 CE – 885 CE) was a powerful
Hindu
Hindu empire,
which originated in the region of Kashmir.[17] It was founded by
Durlabhvardhana during the lifetime of Harsha. The dynasty marked the
rise of
Kashmir
Kashmir as a power in South Asia.[18] Avanti Varman ascended
the throne of
Kashmir
Kashmir on 855 CE, establishing the
Utpala dynasty and
ending the rule of Karkoṭa dynasty.[19]
According to tradition,
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara visited the pre-existing
Sarvajñapīṭha (Sharada Peeth) in
Kashmir
Kashmir in the late 8th century
or early 9th century CE. The Madhaviya Shankaravijayam states this
temple had four doors for scholars from the four cardinal directions.
The southern door of Sarvajna Pitha was opened by Adi Shankara.[20]
According to tradition,
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara opened the southern door by
defeating in debate all the scholars there in all the various
scholastic disciplines such as Mīmāṃsā,
Vedanta
Vedanta and other
branches of
Hindu
Hindu philosophy; he ascended the throne of Transcendent
wisdom of that temple.[21]
Abhinavagupta
Abhinavagupta (c. 950–1020 CE[22][23]) was one of India's greatest
philosophers, mystics and aestheticians. He was also considered an
important musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian, and
logician[24][25] – a polymathic personality who exercised
strong influences on Indian culture.[26][27] He was born in the
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley[28] in a family of scholars and mystics and studied all
the schools of philosophy and art of his time under the guidance of as
many as fifteen (or more) teachers and gurus.[29] In his long life he
completed over 35 works, the largest and most famous of which is
Tantrāloka, an encyclopaedic treatise on all the philosophical and
practical aspects of
Trika and
Kaula
Kaula (known today as Kashmir
Shaivism). Another one of his very important contributions was in the
field of philosophy of aesthetics with his famous Abhinavabhāratī
commentary of Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata Muni.[30]
In the 10th century
Mokshopaya
Mokshopaya or Moksopaya Shastra, a philosophical
text on salvation for non-ascetics (moksa-upaya: 'means to release'),
was written on the Pradyumna hill in Srinagar.[31][32] It has the form
of a public sermon and claims human authorship and contains about
30,000 shloka's (making it longer than the Ramayana). The main part of
the text forms a dialogue between
Vashistha
Vashistha and Rama, interchanged
with numerous short stories and anecdotes to illustrate the
content.[33][34] This text was later (11th to the 14th century CE)[35]
expanded and vedanticised, which resulted in the Yoga Vasistha.[36]
Queen
Kota Rani was medieval
Hindu
Hindu ruler of Kashmir, ruling until
1339. She was a notable ruler who is often credited for saving
Srinagar
Srinagar city from frequent floods by getting a canal constructed,
named after her "Kutte Kol". This canal receives water from Jhelum
River at the entry point of city and again merges with Jhelum river
beyond the city limits.[37]
Shah Mir
Shah Mir Dynasty[edit]
Gateway of enclosure, (once a
Hindu
Hindu temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's
Tomb, in Srinagar. Probable date 400 to 500 CE, 1868. John Burke.
Oriental and
India
India Office Collection. British Library.
Shams-ud-Din
Shah Mir
Shah Mir (reigned 1339–42) was the first
Muslim
Muslim ruler
of Kashmir[38] and founder of the
Shah Mir
Shah Mir dynasty.[38][39] Kashmiri
historian Jonaraja, in his Dvitīyā Rājataraṅginī mentioned Shah
Mir was from Swat, and his ancestors were Kshatriya, who converted to
Islam.
Shāh Mīr arrived in
Kashmir
Kashmir in 1313, along with his family, during
the reign of Sūhadeva (1301–20), whose service he entered. In
subsequent years, through his tact and ability, Shāh Mīr rose to
prominence and became one of the important personalities of the time.
Later, after the death in 1338 of Udayanadeva, the brother of
Sūhadeva, he was able to assume the kingship himself and thus laid
the foundation of permanent
Muslim
Muslim rule in Kashmir. Dissensions among
the ruling classes and foreign invasions were the two main factors
which contributed towards the establishment of
Muslim
Muslim rule in
Kashmir.[40]
Rinchan, from Ladakh, and Lankar Chak, from Dard territory near
Gilgit, came to
Kashmir
Kashmir and played a notable role in the subsequent
political history of the Valley. All the three men were granted Jagirs
(feudatory estates) by the King.
Rinchan became the ruler of Kashmir
for three years.
Shah Mir
Shah Mir was the first ruler of
Shah Mir
Shah Mir dynasty,
which had established in 1339 CE.
Muslim
Muslim ulama, such as Mir
Sayyid
Sayyid Ali
Hamadani, arrived from Central Asia to proselytize in
Kashmir
Kashmir and
their efforts converted thousands of
Kashmiris
Kashmiris to Islam[41] and
Hamadani's son also convinced Sikander Butshikan to enforce Islamic
law. By the late 1400s most
Kashmiris
Kashmiris had accepted Islam.[42]
Mughal rule[edit]
The Mughal padishah (emperor)
Akbar
Akbar conquered Kashmir, taking
advantage of Kashmir's internal Sunni-Shia divisions,[43] and thus
ended indigenous Kashmiri
Muslim
Muslim rule.[6]
Akbar
Akbar added it in 1586 to
Kabul Subah, but
Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan carved it out as a separate subah
(imperial top-level province) with seat at Srinagar.
Afghan rule[edit]
The Afghan Durrani dynasty's
Durrani Empire
Durrani Empire controlled
Kashmir
Kashmir from
1751, when weakling 15th Mughal padshah (emperor) Ahmad Shah Bahadur's
viceroy Muin-ul-Mulk was defeated and reinstated by the Durrani
founder
Ahmad Shah Durrani
Ahmad Shah Durrani (who conquered, roughly, modern day
Afghanistan
Afghanistan and
Pakistan
Pakistan from the Mughals and local rulers), until the
1820 Sikh triumph. The Afghan rulers brutally repressed
Kashmiris
Kashmiris of
all faiths (according to Kashmiri historians).[44]
Sikh rule[edit]
In 1819, the
Kashmir Valley
Kashmir Valley passed from the control of the Durrani
Empire of
Afghanistan
Afghanistan to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under
Ranjit Singh
Ranjit Singh of the Punjab,[45] thus ending four centuries of Muslim
rule under the Mughals and the Afghan regime. As the
Kashmiris
Kashmiris had
suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh
rulers.[46] However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard
taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,[47]
protected perhaps by the remoteness of
Kashmir
Kashmir from the capital of the
Sikh Empire
Sikh Empire in Lahore.[48] The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim
laws,[48] which included handing out death sentences for cow
slaughter,[46] closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar,[48] and
banning the adhan, the public
Muslim
Muslim call to prayer.[48]
Kashmir
Kashmir had
also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of
the abject poverty of the vast
Muslim
Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant
taxes under the Sikhs.[46][49] High taxes, according to some
contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the
countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be
cultivated.[46] Many Kashmiri peasants migrated to the plains of the
Punjab.[50] However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the
land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer
interest-free loans to farmers;[48]
Kashmir
Kashmir became the second highest
revenue earner for the Sikh Empire.[48] During this time Kashmiri
shawls became known worldwide, attracting many buyers, especially in
the West.[48]
The state of Jammu, which had been on the ascendant after the decline
of the Mughal Empire, came under the sway of the Sikhs in 1770.
Further in 1808, it was fully conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
Gulab Singh, then a youngster in the House of Jammu, enrolled in the
Sikh troops and, by distinguishing himself in campaigns, gradually
rose in power and influence. In 1822, he was anointed as the Raja of
Jammu.[51] Along with his able general Zorawar Singh Kahluria, he
conquered and subdued Rajouri (1821),
Kishtwar
Kishtwar (1821), Suru valley and
Kargil
Kargil (1835),
Ladakh
Ladakh (1834–1840), and
Baltistan
Baltistan (1840), thereby
surrounding the
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley. He became a wealthy and influential
noble in the Sikh court.[52]
Princely state[edit]
Main article:
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)
1909 Map of the Princely State of
Kashmir
Kashmir and Jammu. The names of
regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are underlined in
red.
In 1845, the
First Anglo-Sikh War
First Anglo-Sikh War broke out. According to The Imperial
Gazetteer of India,
"
Gulab Singh
Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of
Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted
advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the
first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the
British, as equivalent for one crore indemnity, the hill countries
between the rivers Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over
to
Gulab Singh
Gulab Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country
situated to the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi i.e. the
Vale of Kashmir)."[45]
Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constituted between 1820
and 1858, the Princely State of
Kashmir
Kashmir and
Jammu
Jammu (as it was first
called) combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities:[53] to
the east,
Ladakh
Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its
inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south,
Jammu
Jammu had a mixed
population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated
central
Kashmir
Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Sunni
Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu
minority, the Kashmiri brahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely
populated
Baltistan
Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but
which practised Shia Islam; to the north, also sparsely populated,
Gilgit
Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly Shi'a groups; and, to
the west, Punch was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the
Kashmir
Kashmir valley.[53] After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which
Kashmir
Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of
direct rule by Great Britain, the princely state of
Kashmir
Kashmir came under
the suzerainty of the British Crown.
In the British census of
India
India of 1941,
Kashmir
Kashmir registered a Muslim
majority population of 77%, a
Hindu
Hindu population of 20% and a sparse
population of Buddhists and Sikhs comprising the remaining 3%.[54]
That same year, Prem Nath Bazaz, a
Kashmiri Pandit
Kashmiri Pandit journalist wrote:
“The poverty of the
Muslim
Muslim masses is appalling. ... Most are
landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee [Hindu] landlords ...
Almost the whole brunt of official corruption is borne by the Muslim
masses.”[55] Under the
Hindu
Hindu rule, Muslims faced hefty taxation,
discrimination in the legal system and were forced into labor without
any wages.[56] Conditions in the princely state caused a significant
migration of people from the
Kashmir Valley
Kashmir Valley to
Punjab
Punjab of British
India.[57] For almost a century until the census, a small
Hindu
Hindu elite
had ruled over a vast and impoverished
Muslim
Muslim peasantry.[54][58]
Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to landlords and
moneylenders, having no education besides, nor awareness of
rights,[54] the
Muslim
Muslim peasants had no political representation until
the 1930s.[58]
1947 and 1948[edit]
Further information:
Kashmir
Kashmir conflict, Timeline of the Kashmir
conflict, 1947
Poonch
Poonch Rebellion, Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, 1947
Jammu
Jammu massacres, and 1947 Mirpur massacre
The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the Indian Empire.
Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of
Kashmir
Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of
British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the
British Indian Empire
British Indian Empire into the newly independent Dominion of
India
India and
the Dominion of Pakistan.
In the run up to 1947 there were two major parties in the princely
state: the National Conference and the
Muslim
Muslim Conference. The National
Conference was led by the charismatic Kashmiri leader Sheikh Abdullah
who tilted towards favouring the accession of
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir to
India
India whilst the
Muslim
Muslim Conference tilted towards favouring the
accession of the princely state to Pakistan.[59] The National
Conference enjoyed popular support in the
Kashmir Valley
Kashmir Valley whilst the
Muslim
Muslim Conference was more popular in the
Jammu
Jammu region.[60] The Hindus
and Sikhs of the state were firmly in favour of joining India, as were
the Buddhists.[61] However, the sentiments of the state's Muslim
population were divided. Scholar
Christopher Snedden states that the
Muslims of Western Jammu, and also the Muslims of the Frontier
Districts Province, strongly wanted
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir to join
Pakistan.[62] The ethnic
Kashmiri Muslims
Kashmiri Muslims of the
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley, on
the other hand, were ambivalent about Pakistan[63] (possibly due to
their secular nature)[64] although Snedden claims that the
best-informed English language newspaper on the state's affairs, the
CMG, reported on 21 October 1947 that there had been a massive upsurge
in favour of
Pakistan
Pakistan in the southern section of the Kashmir
Valley-which was the stronghold of the socialist Kisan Mazdoor
Conference party led by
Kashmiri Pandit
Kashmiri Pandit Prem Nath Bazaz.[65] Many
supporters of National Conference and
Sheikh Abdullah
Sheikh Abdullah also did support
Jinnah and the
Muslim
Muslim League.[66] Conversely, The Times reported that
Sheikh Abdullah's influence in
Srinagar
Srinagar was 'paramount'.[67] The fact
that
Kashmiris
Kashmiris were not particularly enamoured with the idea of
Pakistan
Pakistan reflected the failure of the idea of Pan-Islamic identity in
satisfying the political urges of Kashmiris.[68] At the same time
there was also a lack of interest in merging with Indian
nationalism.[69]
According to Burton Stein's History of India,
"
Kashmir
Kashmir was neither as large nor as old an independent state as
Hyderabad; it had been created rather off-handedly by the British
after the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a reward to a former
official who had sided with the British. The Himalayan kingdom was
connected to
India
India through a district of the Punjab, but its
population was 77 per cent
Muslim
Muslim and it shared a boundary with
Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the maharaja would accede to
Pakistan
Pakistan when the British paramountcy ended on 14–15 August. When he
hesitated to do this,
Pakistan
Pakistan launched a guerrilla onslaught meant to
frighten its ruler into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to
Mountbatten[70] for assistance, and the governor-general agreed on the
condition that the ruler accede to India. Indian soldiers entered
Kashmir
Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a
small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to
mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of
Kashmiris
Kashmiris must be ascertained, while
India
India insisted that no referendum
could occur until all of the state had been cleared of
irregulars."[71]
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices.
However, since the referendum demanded by the UN was never conducted,
relations between
India
India and
Pakistan
Pakistan soured,[71] and eventually led to
two more wars over
Kashmir
Kashmir in 1965 and 1999.
India
India has control of
about half the area of the former princely state of
Jammu
Jammu and Kashmir,
while
Pakistan
Pakistan controls a third of the region, the Northern Areas and
Kashmir. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "Although there was a
clear
Muslim
Muslim majority in
Kashmir
Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its
economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority
area of the
Punjab
Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated,
the political developments during and after the partition resulted in
a division of the region.
Pakistan
Pakistan was left with territory that,
although basically
Muslim
Muslim in character, was thinly populated,
relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest
Muslim
Muslim group, situated in the Valley of
Kashmir
Kashmir and estimated to
number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in
Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum
valley route blocked."[72]
Topographic map
Topographic map of Kasmir
Current status and political divisions[edit]
Main articles: Aksai Chin, Azad Kashmir,
Jammu
Jammu and Kashmir,
Gilgit–Baltistan, and Trans-
Karakoram
Karakoram Tract
The eastern region of the former princely state of
Kashmir
Kashmir is also
involved in a boundary dispute that began in the late 19th century and
continues into the 21st. Although some boundary agreements were signed
between Great Britain,
Afghanistan
Afghanistan and
Russia
Russia over the northern
borders of Kashmir,
China
China never accepted these agreements, and China's
official position has not changed following the communist revolution
of 1949 that established the People's Republic of China. By the
mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of
Ladakh.[72]
"By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai
Chin area to provide better communication between
Xinjiang
Xinjiang and western
Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes
between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of
October 1962."[72]
The region is divided amongst three countries in a territorial
dispute:
Pakistan
Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and
Kashmir),
India
India controls the central and southern portion (
Jammu
Jammu and
Kashmir) and Ladakh, and the People's Republic of
China
China controls the
northeastern portion (
Aksai Chin
Aksai Chin and the Trans-
Karakoram
Karakoram Tract). India
controls the majority of the
Siachen
Siachen Glacier area, including the
Saltoro Ridge passes, whilst
Pakistan
Pakistan controls the lower territory
just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge.
India
India controls 101,338 km2
(39,127 sq mi) of the disputed territory,
Pakistan
Pakistan controls
85,846 km2 (33,145 sq mi), and the People's Republic of
China
China controls the remaining 37,555 km2 (14,500 sq mi).
Jammu
Jammu and
Azad Kashmir
Azad Kashmir lie outside
Pir Panjal
Pir Panjal range, and are under
Indian and Pakistani control respectively. These are populous regions.
Gilgit–Baltistan, formerly known as the Northern Areas, is a group
of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the Karakoram, the
western Himalayas, the Pamir, and the
Hindu Kush
Hindu Kush ranges. With its
administrative centre in the town of Gilgit, the Northern Areas cover
an area of 72,971 square kilometres (28,174 sq mi) and have
an estimated population approaching 1 million (10 lakhs).
Ladakh
Ladakh is a region in the east, between the Kunlun mountain range in
the north and the main
Great Himalayas to the south.[73] Main cities
are
Leh
Leh and Kargil. It is under Indian administration and is part of
the state of
Jammu
Jammu and Kashmir. It is one of the most sparsely
populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of
Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent.[73]
Aksai Chin
Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude
desert of salt that reaches altitudes up to 5,000 metres
(16,000 ft). Geographically part of the Tibetan Plateau, Aksai
Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost
uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements.
Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective
claimants, neither
India
India nor
Pakistan
Pakistan has formally recognised the
accession of the areas claimed by the other.
India
India claims those areas,
including the area "ceded" to
China
China by
Pakistan
Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram
Tract in 1963, are a part of its territory, while
Pakistan
Pakistan claims the
entire region excluding
Aksai Chin
Aksai Chin and Trans-
Karakoram
Karakoram Tract. The two
countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today,
with
Pakistan
Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India
one-half, with a dividing line of control established by the United
Nations. The
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 resulted in a stalemate and a
UN-negotiated ceasefire.
Demographics[edit]
In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the
princely state of
Kashmir
Kashmir and
Jammu
Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695
(74.16%) were Muslims, 689,073 (23.72%) Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs,
and 35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) others).
A
Muslim
Muslim shawl-making family shown in Cashmere shawl manufactory,
1867, chromolith., William Simpson.
A group of Kashmiri Pandits, natives of
Kashmir Valley
Kashmir Valley belong to one
of the prominent Shaiva sects of Hinduism, shown in 1895.
Among the Muslims of the
Kashmir
Kashmir province within the princely state,
four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans.
The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of
Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their
forefathers. They have clan names known as krams ..."[74] These kram
names included "Tantre", "Shaikh", "Bat", "Mantu", "Ganai", "Dar",
"Damar", "Lon", etc. The Saiyids "could be divided into those who
follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to
agriculture and other pursuits. Their kram name is 'Mir.' While a
Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix; if he has taken
to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name."[74] The Mughals who were
not numerous had kram names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"),
"Beg", "Bandi", "Bach" and "Ashaye". Finally, it was recorded that the
Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly
in the south-west of the valley, where Pathan colonies have from time
to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that
of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs
and speak Pashto."[74] Among the main tribes of Muslims in the
princely state are the Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput, Sudhan
and Khatri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title
Khawaja. The
Khatri
Khatri use the title Shaikh and the Gujjar use the title
Chaudhary. All these tribes are indigenous to the princely state which
converted to
Islam
Islam from
Hinduism
Hinduism during its arrival in the region.
The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little
less than 60% of the population.[74] In the
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley, the Hindus
represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and
in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and
Gilgit
Gilgit only 94 out of every
10,000 persons (0.94%)."[74] In the same Census of 1901, in the
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of
which the
Muslim
Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu
population 60,641.[74] Among the Hindus of
Jammu
Jammu province, who
numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the
Hindu
Hindu population of the princely
state), the most important castes recorded in the census were
"Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000) and
the Thakkars (93,000)."[74]
In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population
of
Kashmir
Kashmir and
Jammu
Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320
(75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and
36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of British
India
India in 1941,
the total population of
Kashmir
Kashmir and
Jammu
Jammu (which as a result of the
second world war, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000.
Of these, the total
Muslim
Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the
Hindu
Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000
(1.39%).[75]
The Kashmiri Pandits, the only Hindus of the
Kashmir
Kashmir valley, who had
stably constituted approximately 4 to 5% of the population of the
valley during
Dogra
Dogra rule (1846–1947), and 20% of whom had left the
Kashmir valley
Kashmir valley by 1950,[76] began to leave in much greater numbers in
the 1990s. According to a number of authors, approximately 100,000 of
the total
Kashmiri Pandit
Kashmiri Pandit population of 140,000 left the valley during
that decade.[77] Other authors have suggested a higher figure for the
exodus, ranging from the entire population of over 150[78] to 190
thousand (1.5 to 190,000) of a total Pandit population of 200 thousand
(200,000)[79] to a number as high as 300 thousand[80] (300,000).
People in
Jammu
Jammu speak Hindi, Punjabi and Dogri, the Vale of Kashmir
speaks Kashmiri and the sparsely inhabited
Ladakh
Ladakh region speaks
Tibetan and Balti.[81]
The total population of India's division of
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir is
12,541,302[82] and Pakistan's division of
Kashmir
Kashmir is 2,580,000 and
Gilgit-Baltistan
Gilgit-Baltistan is 870,347.[83]
Administered by Area Population % Muslim % Hindu % Buddhist % Other
India
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley
~4 million (4 million)
95%
4%*
–
–
Jammu ~3 million (3 million) 30% 66% – 4%
Ladakh ~0.25 million (250,000) 46% – 50% 3%
Pakistan Azad Kashmir ~4 million (4 million) 100% – – –
Gilgit–Baltistan ~2 million (2 million) 99% – – –
China Aksai Chin – – – – –
Trans-Karakoram – – – – –
Statistics from the
BBC
BBC In Depth report.
Brokpa
Brokpa women from Kargil, northern Ladakh, in local costumes
Economy[edit]
Srinagar, the largest city of Kashmir
Further information:
Azad Kashmir
Azad Kashmir § Economy, and
Jammu
Jammu and
Kashmir
Kashmir § Economy
Kashmir's economy is centred around agriculture. Traditionally the
staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the
people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also
grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like
asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot,
cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the
cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The
chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or plane, maple, birch
and walnut, apple, cherry.
Historically,
Kashmir
Kashmir became known worldwide when
Cashmere wool
Cashmere wool was
exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to
decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition
from China).
Kashmiris
Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making Pashmina
shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas, and pottery. Saffron, too, is
grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits
and vegetables as organic foods mainly to the Middle East.
Srinagar
Srinagar is
known for its silver-work, papier-mâché, wood-carving, and the
weaving of silk. The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir
earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths
in the Pakistan-controlled part of
Kashmir
Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in
Indian controlled Kashmir. The Indian-administered portion of Kashmir
is believed to have potentially rich rocks containing hydrocarbon
reserves.[84][85]
Transport[edit]
Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in the region.[86]
Kashmir
Kashmir has a 135 km (84 mi) long modern railway line that
started in October 2009, and was last extended in 2013 and connects
Baramulla
Baramulla in the western part of
Kashmir
Kashmir to
Srinagar
Srinagar and Banihal. It
is expected to link
Kashmir
Kashmir to the rest of
India
India after the
construction of the railway line from Katra to
Banihal
Banihal is
completed.[87]
See also[edit]
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley
Jammu
Ladakh
Kashmir
Kashmir conflict
Kashmiris
List of Kashmiri people
1941 Census of
Jammu
Jammu and Kashmir
Line of Control
Human rights abuses in Kashmir
List of
Jammu
Jammu and Kashmir-related articles
Cashmere (other)
Notes[edit]
^ a b "Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Retrieved 16 July 2016. Quote: "Kashmir, region of
the northwestern Indian subcontinent. It is bounded by the Uygur
Autonomous Region of
Xinjiang
Xinjiang to the northeast and the Tibet
Autonomous Region to the east (both parts of China), by the Indian
states of Himachal Pradesh and
Punjab
Punjab to the south, by
Pakistan
Pakistan to the
west, and by
Afghanistan
Afghanistan to the northwest. The northern and western
portions are administered by
Pakistan
Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad
Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, ... The southern and southeastern
portions constitute the Indian state of
Jammu
Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian-
and Pakistani-administered portions are divided by a “line of
control” agreed to in 1972, although neither country recognizes it
as an international boundary. In addition,
China
China became active in the
eastern area of
Kashmir
Kashmir in the 1950s and since 1962 has controlled the
northeastern part of
Ladakh
Ladakh (the easternmost portion of the region)."
^ a b "
Kashmir
Kashmir territories profile". BBC. Retrieved 16 July
2016. Quote: "The Himalayan region of
Kashmir
Kashmir has been a
flashpoint between
India
India and
Pakistan
Pakistan for over six decades. Since
India's partition and the creation of
Pakistan
Pakistan in 1947, the
nuclear-armed neighbours have fought three wars over the
Muslim-majority territory, which both claim in full but control in
part. Today it remains one of the most militarised zones in the world.
China
China administers parts of the territory."
^ "
Kashmir
Kashmir profile — timeline". BBC. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
Quote: "1950s –
China
China gradually occupies eastern
Kashmir
Kashmir (Aksai
Chin). 1962 –
China
China defeats
India
India in a short war for control of
Aksai Chin. 1963 –
Pakistan
Pakistan cedes the
Trans-Karakoram Tract
Trans-Karakoram Tract of
Kashmir
Kashmir to China."
^ Basham, A. L. (2005) The wonder that was India, Picador. Pp. 572.
ISBN 0-330-43909-X, p. 110.
^ a b c Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford
University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93–95.
^ a b Puri, Balraj (June 2009), "5000 Years of Kashmir", Epilogue, 3
(6), pp. 43–45, retrieved 31 December 2016, It was emperor
Akbar
Akbar who brought an end to indigenous Kashmiri
Muslim
Muslim rule that had
lasted 250 years. The watershed in Kashmiri history is not the
beginning of the
Muslim
Muslim rule as is regarded in the rest of the
subcontinent but the changeover from Kashmiri rule to a non-Kashmiri
rule.
^ Margolis, Eric (2004). War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for
Afghanistan,
Kashmir
Kashmir and Tibet (paperback ed.). Routledge. p. 56.
ISBN 9781135955595.
^ Coleman, Peter (2011). The Five Percent: Finding Solutions to
Seemingly Impossible Conflicts (paperback ed.). Hachette UK.
ISBN 9781586489229.
^ "A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages".
Dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2015-05-29.
^ Akbar, M. J. (1991), Kashmir, behind the vale, Viking,
p. 9
^ Raina, Mohini Qasba (October 2013), Kashur The Kashmiri Speaking
People, Trafford Publishing, pp. 3–,
ISBN 978-1-4907-0165-3
^ a b Snedden, Christopher (2015), Understanding
Kashmir
Kashmir and
Kashmiris, Oxford University Press, pp. 22–,
ISBN 978-1-84904-342-7
^ Khan, Ruhail (2017-07-06). Who Killed Kasheer?. Notion Press.
ISBN 9781947283107.
^ P. iv '
Kashmir
Kashmir Today' by Government, 1998
^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass 2000, page 256.
^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass 2000, pages
263–264.
^ Life in India, Issue 1. Archived from the original on 5 February
2016.
^ Kalhana (1147–1149); Rajatarangini.
^ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization.
New Age International. p. 295. ISBN 978-8122-411-98-0.
^ Shyama Kumar Chattopadhyaya (2000) The Philosophy of Sankar's
Advaita Vedanta, Sarup & Sons, New Delhi ISBN 81-7625-222-0,
ISBN 978-81-7625-222-5
^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002), Sankara-Dig-Vijaya,
pp. 186–195
^ Triadic Heart of Shiva, Paul E. Muller-Ortega, page 12
^ Introduction to the Tantrāloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 27
^ Re-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, page 4
^ Key to the Vedas, Nathalia Mikhailova, page 169
^ The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare, page 12
^ Companion to Tantra, S.C. Banerji, page 89
^ Doctrine of Divine Recognition, K. C. Pandey, page V
^ Introduction to the Tantrāloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 35
^ Luce dei Tantra, Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta, Raniero Gnoli, page
LXXVII
^ Slaje, Walter. (2005). "Locating the Mokṣopāya", in: Hanneder,
Jürgen (Ed.). The Mokṣopāya, Yogavāsiṣṭha and Related Texts
Aachen: Shaker Verlag. (Indologica Halensis. Geisteskultur Indiens.
7). p. 35.
^ Gallery – The journey to the Pradyumnaśikhara Archived 23
December 2005 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Leslie 2003, pp. 104–107
^ Lekh Raj Manjdadria. (2002?) The State of Research to date on the
Yogavastha (Moksopaya) Archived 15 September 2013 at the Wayback
Machine..
^ Hanneder, Jürgen; Slaje, Walter. Moksopaya Project: Introduction.
Archived 28 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Chapple, Christopher; Venkatesananda (1984), "Introduction", The
Concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha, Albany: State University of New York
Press, pp. x–xi, ISBN 0-87395-955-8,
OCLC 11044869
^ Culture and political history of Kashmir, Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai,
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1994.
^ a b Concise Encyclopeida Of World History By Carlos Ramirez-Faria,
page 412
^ The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Page
104 "However, the situation changed with the ending of the
Hindu
Hindu rule
and founding of the Shahmiri dynasty by Shahmir or Dhams-ud-din
(1339–1342). The devastating attack on
Kashmir
Kashmir in 1320 by the Mongol
leader, Dalucha, was a prelude to it. It is said ... The Sultan was
himself a learned man, and composed poetry. He was ..."
^ Baloch, N. A.; Rafiqi, A. Q. (1998), "The Regions of Sind,
Baluchistan, Multan and Kashmir" (PDF), in M. S. Asimov; C. E.
Bosworth, History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV, Part 1
— The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth
century — The historical, social and economic setting, UNESCO,
pp. 297–322, ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1
^ Amin, Tahir; Schofield, Victoria. Kashmir. The Oxford Encyclopedia
of the Islamic World. A large number of
Muslim
Muslim ʿulamāʿ came from
Central Asia to
Kashmir
Kashmir to preach;
Sayyid
Sayyid Bilāl Shāh, Sayyid
Jalāluddīn of Bukhara,
Sayyid
Sayyid Tajuddīn, his brother
Sayyid
Sayyid Ḥusayn
Sīmānī,
Sayyid
Sayyid ʿAlī Ḥamadānī, his son Mir Muḥammad
Hamadānī, and Shaykh Nūruddīn are some of the well-known
ʿulamāʿ who played a significant role in spreading Islam.
^ Amin, Tahir; Schofield, Victoria. Kashmir. The Oxford Encyclopedia
of the Islamic World. The contribution of
Sayyid
Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī,
popularly known as Shah-yi Hamadān, is legendary. Born at Hamadān
(Iran) in 1314 and belonging to the Kubrawīyah order of Ṣūfīs, a
branch of the Suhrawardīyah, he paid three visits to
Kashmir
Kashmir in 1372,
1379, and 1383; together with several hundred followers, he converted
thousands of
Kashmiris
Kashmiris to Islam. His son
Sayyid
Sayyid Muḥammad Hamadānī
continued his work, vigorously propagating
Islam
Islam as well as
influencing the
Muslim
Muslim ruler Sikander (1389–1413) to enforce Islamic
law and to establish the office of the Shaykh al-Islām (chief
religious authority). By the end of the fifteenth century, the
majority of the people had embraced Islam.
^ Snedden, Christopher (2015). Understanding
Kashmir
Kashmir and Kashmiris.
Oxford University Press. p. 29. ISBN 9781849043427.
Similarly, Sunni and Shia
Kashmiris
Kashmiris had troubles at times, with their
differences offering the third Mughal Emperor,
Akbar
Akbar (ruled
1556–1605), a pretext to invade Kashmir, and capture it, in
1586.
^ Zutshi, Chitralekha (2004). Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional
Identity, and the Making of Kashmir. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.
p. 35. ISBN 9781850657002. Most historians of
Kashmir
Kashmir agree
on the rapacity of the Afghan governors, a period unrelieved by even
brief respite devoted to good work and welfare for the people of
Kashmir. According to these histories, the Afghans were brutally
repressive with all Kashmiris, regardless of class or religion
^ a b Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. "Kashmir:
History". pp. 94–95.
^ a b c d Schofield,
Kashmir
Kashmir in Conflict 2003, pp. 5–6
^ Madan, Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashimiriyat 2008, p. 15
^ a b c d e f g Zutshi, Languages of Belonging 2004, pp. 39–41
^ Amin, Tahir; Schofield, Victoria. Kashmir. The Oxford Encyclopedia
of the Islamic World. During both Sikh and
Dogra
Dogra rule, heavy taxation,
forced work without wages (begār), discriminatory laws, and rural
indebtedness were widespread among the largely illiterate Muslim
population.
^ Zutshi, Chitralekha (2004). Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional
Identity, and the Making of Kashmir. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.
p. 40. ISBN 9781850656944. Kashmiri histories emphasize the
wretchedness of life for the common Kashmiri during Sikh rule.
According to these, the peasantry became mired in poverty and
migrations of Kashmiri peasants to the plains of the
Punjab
Punjab reached
high proportions. Several European travelers' accounts from the period
testify to and provide evidence for such assertions.
^ Panikkar 1930, p. 10–11, 14–34.
^ Schofield,
Kashmir
Kashmir in Conflict 2003, pp. 6–7.
^ a b Bowers, Paul. 2004. "Kashmir." Research Paper 4/28 Archived 26
March 2009 at the Wayback Machine., International Affairs and Defence,
House of Commons Library, United Kingdom.
^ a b c Bose 2005, pp. 15–17
^ Quoted in Bose 2005, pp. 15–17
^ Kashmir. OUP.
^
Sumantra Bose (16 September 2013). Transforming India. Harvard
University Press. p. 211.
ISBN 978-0-674-72820-2. [permanent dead link]
^ a b Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 54
^ Snedden, Christopher (2013). Kashmir-The Untold Story. HarperCollins
Publishers India. p. 22. ISBN 9789350298985. In 1947,
J&K's political scene was dominated by two parties: the All
J&K National Conference (commonly called the National Conference)
and the All J&K
Muslim
Muslim Conference (commonly called the Muslim
Conference). Each conference had a different aspiration for J&K's
status: the National Conference opposed J&K joining Pakistan; the
Muslim
Muslim Conference favoured this option.
^ Snedden, Christopher (2013). Kashmir-The Untold Story. HarperCollins
Publishers India. ISBN 9789350298985. The National Conference was
strongest in the
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley... conversely, outside the Kashmir
Valley its support was much less, with perhaps five to 15 per cent of
the population supporting it. The
Muslim
Muslim Conference had a lot of
support in
Jammu
Jammu Province and much less in the
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley.
^ Snedden, Christopher (2012). The Untold Story of the People of Azad
Kashmir. Hurst. p. 35. ISBN 9781849041508. Retrieved 30
December 2016. Those Hindus and Sikhs who comprised a majority in the
eastern parts of
Jammu
Jammu province were strongly pro-Indian. Their
dislike of
Pakistan
Pakistan and pro-Pakistani J&K Muslims was further
heightened by the arrival of angry and agitated
Hindu
Hindu and Sikh
refugees from western (Pakistani)
Punjab
Punjab after 15 August 1947.
Accession to
Pakistan
Pakistan therefore, would almost certainly have seen
these people either fight to retain their land or take flight to
India. In the event of accession to Pakistan,
Hindu
Hindu Pandits and Sikhs
in the
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley, most of whom probably favoured J&K joining
India, might also have fled to pro-Indian parts of J&K, or to
India. Although their position is less clear, Ladakhi Buddhists
probably favoured
India
India also.
^ Snedden, Christopher (2013). Kashmir-The Untold Story. HarperCollins
Publishers India. ISBN 9789350298985. Similarly, Muslims in
Western
Jammu
Jammu Province, particularly in Poonch, many of whom had
martial capabilities, and Muslims in the Frontier Districts Province
strongly wanted J&K to join Pakistan.
^ Snedden, Christopher (2013). Kashmir-The Untold Story. HarperCollins
Publishers India. ISBN 9789350298985. An important trait evident
among
Kashmiris
Kashmiris partially explains why
Kashmiri Muslims
Kashmiri Muslims were
ambivalent about
Pakistan
Pakistan in 1947.
^ Snedden, Christopher (2013). Kashmir-The Untold Story. HarperCollins
Publishers India. ISBN 9789350298985. One significant result of
the concept of Kashmiriness was that
Kashmiris
Kashmiris may have been naturally
attracted to secular thinking.
^ Snedden, Christopher (2012). The Untold Story of the People of Azad
Kashmir. Hurst. p. 24. ISBN 9781849041508. Retrieved 30
December 2016. The CMG, the best-informed English-language newspaper
on J&K affairs, on 21 October 1947 reported that the southern
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley, which apparently was the 'stronghold' of the Kisan
Mazdoor Conference, 'last week witnessed a massive upsurge in favour
of Pakistan'. However, the CMG's report predated the tribal invasion
of
Kashmir
Kashmir Province by one day, after which support for pro-Pakistan
parties may have lessened, at least in the short term, even though
southern
Kashmir
Kashmir was not directly affected by this invasion.
^ D. A. Low (18 June 1991). Political Inheritance of Pakistan.
Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 237–.
ISBN 978-1-349-11556-3.
^ Snedden, Christopher (2012). The Untold Story of the People of Azad
Kashmir. Hurst. p. 24. ISBN 9781849041508. Retrieved 30
December 2016. According to The Times'
Special
Special Correspondent in late
October 1947, it was 'a moot point how far Abdullah's influence
extends among the Kashmiri Muslims...but in
Srinagar
Srinagar his influence is
paramount'.
^ Chowdhary, Rekha (2015).
Jammu
Jammu and Kashmir: Politics of Identity and
Separatism. Routledge. ISBN 9781317414049. That is why, Kashmiris
were not particularly enamoured with the idea of Pakistan. The
developments of 1930s (when
Muslim
Muslim Conference was converted into the
National Conference) and 1940s (when Kashmiri leadership took a
deliberated decision to demand self-government) clearly reflected the
failure of pan-Islamic identity satisfying the political urges of
Kashmiris.
^ Chowdhary, Rekha (2015).
Jammu
Jammu and Kashmir: Politics of Identity and
Separatism. Routledge. p. 20. ISBN 9781317414056. However,
even while rejecting Pakistan, Sheikh did not agree to accept union
with
India
India in an unconditional manner. He was very firm about
protecting the rights and identity of Kashmiris. As Puri argues, it
was the same reason that compelled the Kashmiri leaders to distance
themselves from the
Muslim
Muslim politics of pre-partition India, which
reflected a lack of urge to merge with Indian nationalism.
^ Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India,
stayed on in independent
India
India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first
Governor-General of the Union of India.
^ a b Stein, Burton. 2010. A History of India. Oxford University
Press. 432 pages. ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6. Page 358.
^ a b c Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27
March 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived 13 January
2008 at the Wayback Machine.
^ a b Jina, Prem Singh (1996), Ladakh: The Land and the People, Indus
Publishing, ISBN 81-7387-057-8
^ a b c d e f g Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford
University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99–102.
^ Brush, J. E. (1949). "The Distribution of Religious Communities in
India". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 39 (2):
81–98. doi:10.1080/00045604909351998.
^ Zutshi 2003, p. 318 Quote: "Since a majority of the landlords
were Hindu, the (land) reforms (of 1950) led to a mass exodus of
Hindus from the state. ... The unsettled nature of Kashmir's accession
to India, coupled with the threat of economic and social decline in
the face of the land reforms, led to increasing insecurity among the
Hindus in Jammu, and among Kashmiri Pandits, 20 per cent of whom had
emigrated from the Valley by 1950."
^ Bose 1997, p. 71, Rai 2004, p. 286, Metcalf & Metcalf
2006, p. 274 Quote: "The
Hindu
Hindu Pandits, a small but influential
elite community who had secured a favourable position, first under the
maharajas, and then under the successive Congress regimes, and
proponents of a distinctive Kashmiri culture that linked them to
India, felt under siege as the uprising gathered force. Of a
population of some 140,000, perhaps 100,000 Pandits fled the state
after 1990; their cause was quickly taken up by the
Hindu
Hindu right."
^ Malik 2005, p. 318
^ Madan 2008, p. 25
^ CIA Factbook: India–Transnational Issues
^ "
Kashmir
Kashmir region, Indian subcontinent". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Retrieved 2017-04-05.
^ "India,
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir population statistics". GeoHive. Archived
from the original on 19 April 2015. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
^ "
Pakistan
Pakistan population statistics". GeoHive. Archived from the
original on 6 April 2013. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
^ Iftikhar Gilani. "Italian company to pursue oil exploration in
Kashmir". Daily Times. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011.
Retrieved 20 November 2009.
^ Ishfaq-ul-Hassan. "India,
Pakistan
Pakistan to explore oil jointly". Daily
News and Analysis. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
^ "Local Transport in
Kashmir
Kashmir – Means of Transportation
Kashmir
Kashmir –
Mode of Transportation
Kashmir
Kashmir India". Bharatonline.com. Retrieved 3
August 2012.
^ "How to Reach
Kashmir
Kashmir by Train, Air, Bus?". Baapar.com. Retrieved 22
January 2016.
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Khan, Yasmin (2007), The Great Partition: The Making of
India
India and
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Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004), A History of India, 4th
edition. Routledge, Pp. xii, 448, ISBN 0-415-32920-5 .
Metcalf, Barbara; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006), A Concise History of
Modern
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India (Cambridge Concise Histories), Cambridge and New York:
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Ramusack, Barbara (2004), The Indian Princes and their States (The New
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Stein, Burton (2001), A History of India, New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford
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Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India,
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Wolpert, Stanley (2006), Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the
British Empire in India, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Pp. 272, ISBN 0-19-515198-4 .
Kashmir
Kashmir history
Bose, Sumantra (1997), The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy,
Self-Determination and a Just Peace, SAGE Publications,
ISBN 978-0-8039-9350-1
Bose, Sumantra (2003), Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace,
Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-01173-2
Keenan, Brigid (2013), Travels in Kashmir, Hachette India,
ISBN 978-93-5009-729-8
Korbel, Josef (1966) [first published 1954], Danger in
Kashmir
Kashmir (second
ed.), Princeton University Press
Lamb, Alastair (1991) [first published 1991 by Roxford Books],
Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990, Oxford University Press,
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Lamb, Alastair (2002) [first published 1997 by Roxford Books],
Incomplete Partition: The Genesis of the
Kashmir
Kashmir Dispute, 1947–1948,
Oxford: Oxford University Press
Malik, Iffat (2005), Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict, International Dispute,
Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-579622-3
Panikkar, K. M. (1930), Gulab Singh, London: Martin Hopkinson
Ltd
Rai, Mridu (2004),
Hindu
Hindu Rulers,
Muslim
Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and
the History of Kashmir, C. Hurst & Co, ISBN 1850656614
Rao, Aparna, ed. (2008), The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and
Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, Manohar Publishers &
Distributors, ISBN 978-81-7304-751-0
Evans, Alexander (2008), "Kashmiri Exceptionalism", in Rao, Aparna,
The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite
Culture?, pp. 713–741
Kaw, Mushtaq A. (2008), "Land Rights in Rural Kashmir: A Study in
Continuity and Change from Late-Sixteenth to Late-Twentieth
Centuries", in Rao, Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and
Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, pp. 207–234
Khan, Mohammad Ishaq (2008), "Islam, State and Society in Medieval
Kashmir: A Revaluation of Mir
Sayyid
Sayyid Ali Hamadani's Historical Role",
in Rao, Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a
Composite Culture?, pp. 97–198
Madan, T. N. (2008), "Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashmiriyat: An Introductory
Essay", in Rao, Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking
of a Composite Culture?, pp. 1–36
Reynolds, Nathalène (2008), "Revisiting Key Episodes in Modern
Kashmir
Kashmir History", in Rao, Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Making
and Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, pp. 563–604
Witzel, Michael (2008), "The Kashmiri Pandits: Their Early History",
in Rao, Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a
Composite Culture?, pp. 37–96
Zutshi, Chitraleka (2008), "Shrines, Political Authority, and
Religious Identities in Late-Nineteenth and Early-Twentieth-century
Kashmir", in Rao, Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and
Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, pp. 235–258
Schaffer, Howard B. (2009), The Limits of Influence: America's Role in
Kashmir, Brookings Institution Press,
ISBN 978-0-8157-0370-9
Schofield, Victoria (2003) [First published in 2000],
Kashmir
Kashmir in
Conflict, London and New York: I. B. Taurus & Co,
ISBN 1860648983
Singh, Bawa Satinder (1971), "Raja Gulab Singh's Role in the First
Anglo-Sikh War", Modern Asian Studies, 5 (1): 35–59,
doi:10.1017/s0026749x00002845, JSTOR 311654
Zutshi, Chitralekha, Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional Identity,
and the Making of Kashmir, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers,
ISBN 978-1-85065-700-2
Historical sources[edit]
Blank, Jonah. "Kashmir–Fundamentalism Takes Root", Foreign Affairs,
78,6 (November/December 1999): 36–42.
Drew, Federic. 1877. The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account
of the Jammoo and
Kashmir
Kashmir Territories with Illustrations; 1st edition:
Edward Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu.
1971.
Evans, Alexander. Why Peace Won't Come to Kashmir, Current History
(Vol 100, No 645) April 2001 p. 170–175.
Hussain, Ijaz. 1998. "
Kashmir
Kashmir Dispute: An International Law
Perspective", National Institute of
Pakistan
Pakistan Studies.
Irfani, Suroosh, ed "Fifty Years of the
Kashmir
Kashmir Dispute": Based on the
proceedings of the International Seminar held at Muzaffarabad, Azad
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir 24–25 August 1997: University of Azad
Jammu
Jammu and
Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, AJK, 1997.
Joshi, Manoj Lost Rebellion:
Kashmir
Kashmir in the Nineties (Penguin, New
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Khan, L. Ali The
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Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, 31, p. 495 (1994).
Knight, E. F. 1893. Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent
Travel in: Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining
countries. Longmans, Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen
Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971.
Knight, William, Henry. 1863. Diary of a Pedestrian in Cashmere and
Thibet. Richard Bentley, London. Reprint 1998: Asian Educational
Services, New Delhi.
Köchler, Hans. The
Kashmir
Kashmir Problem between Law and Realpolitik.
Reflections on a Negotiated Settlement. Keynote speech delivered at
the "Global Discourse on
Kashmir
Kashmir 2008." European Parliament, Brussels,
1 April 2008.
Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. Travels in the Himalayan
Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in
Ladakh
Ladakh and Kashmir, in
Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825, Vol. II.
Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.
Neve, Arthur. (Date unknown). The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh,
Skardo &c. 18th Edition. Civil and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore.
(The date of this edition is unknown – but the 16th edition was
published in 1938).
Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī–A Chronicle
of the Kings of Kaśmīr, 2 vols. London, A. Constable & Co. Ltd.
1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1979.
Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, Edward 1917. Kashmir. A. & C.
Black, London.
Norelli-Bachelet, Patrizia. "
Kashmir
Kashmir and the Convergence of Time,
Space and Destiny", 2004; ISBN 0-945747-00-4. First published as
a four-part series, March 2002 – April 2003, in 'Prakash', a
review of the Jagat
Guru
Guru Bhagavaan Gopinath Ji Charitable Foundation.
[1]
Muhammad Ayub. An Army; Its Role & Rule (A History of the Pakistan
Army from Independence to
Kargil
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Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania USA 2005. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kashmir.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Kashmir.
Instrument of Accession
United Nations Military Observers Group in Kashmir
Official website of the
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir Government
(Indian-administered Kashmir)
Official website of the Azad
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir Government
(Pakistan-administered Kashmir)
Coordinates: 34°30′N 76°00′E / 34.5°N 76°E / 34.5; 76
v t e
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v t e
Territorial disputes in East, South, and Southeast Asia
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1: Inactive dispute 2: Divided among multiple claimants
v t e
Kashmir
Kashmir conflict
Timeline of the
Kashmir
Kashmir conflict
1846–1946 1947–present
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Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
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WorldCat Identities VIAF: 253572943 N