Valley Forge Battle of Trenton
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon Conference
1787 Constitutional Convention
President of the United States Presidency
First term
1788–89 election 1st inauguration
Judiciary Act Whiskey Rebellion
Thanksgiving Presidential title Coinage Act Residence Act
District of Columbia
Second term
1792 election 2nd inauguration Neutrality Act Jay Treaty
Judicial appointments Farewell Address
Legacy
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v t e
George Washington
George Washington (February 22, 1732[b][c] – December 14, 1799)
was an American statesman and soldier who served as the first
President of the United States
President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the
Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief
of the
Continental Army
Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, and
later presided over the 1787 convention that drafted the United States
Constitution. He is popularly considered the driving force behind the
nation's establishment and came to be known as the "father of the
country," both during his lifetime and to this day.[3]
Washington was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial
Virginia
Virginia to
a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves,
which he inherited. In his youth, he became a senior officer in the
colonial militia during the first stages of the French and Indian War.
In 1775, the Second
Continental Congress
Continental Congress commissioned him as
commander-in-chief of the
Continental Army
Continental Army in the American Revolution.
In that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776
but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New
York City. After crossing the
Delaware River
Delaware River in the middle of winter,
he defeated the British in two battles (Trenton and Princeton), retook
New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause. His strategy
enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at
Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. Historians laud Washington for
the selection and supervision of his generals, preservation and
command of the army, coordination with the Congress, state governors,
and their militia, and attention to supplies, logistics, and training.
In battle, however, Washington was sometimes outmaneuvered by British
generals with larger armies, yet was always able to avoid significant
defeats which would have resulted in the surrender of his army and the
loss of the American Revolution.
After victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as
commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his commitment to
American republicanism.[4] Washington presided over the Constitutional
Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of federal government for
the United States. Washington was widely admired for his strong
leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the
Electoral College in the first two national elections. Following his
election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in
the fledgling nation. He supported Alexander Hamilton's programs to
satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of
government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a
national bank.[5]
In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace
and profitable trade by securing the
Jay Treaty
Jay Treaty in 1795, despite
intense opposition from the Jeffersonians. He oversaw the creation of
a strong, well-financed national government that maintained neutrality
in the French Revolutionary Wars, suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion,
and won wide acceptance amongst Americans.[6] Washington's incumbency
established many precedents still in use today, such as the cabinet
system, the inaugural address, and the title Mr. President.[7][8] His
retirement from office after two terms established a tradition that
lasted until 1940 and was later made law by the 22nd Amendment. He
remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he
largely supported its policies. By 1794, Congress was divided between
two parties, that had stemmed from a politcal-personal feud between
Washington's two secretaries, Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson.
Washington's Farewell Address
Washington's Farewell Address was an influential primer on civic
virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism, and involvement in
foreign wars.
He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home and
plantation at Mount Vernon. Upon his death, Washington was eulogized
as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his
countrymen" by Representative
Henry Lee III
Henry Lee III of Virginia.[9] He was
revered in life and in death; scholarly and public polling
consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American
history. He has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public
works, currency, and other dedications to the present day.
Contents
1 Early life (1732–1753)
1.1 Surveyor
2 French and Indian War
2.1 Beginnings of War
2.2 Braddock disaster (1755)
2.3 Commander of
Virginia
Virginia Regiment
2.4 Lessons learned
3 Between the wars:
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon (1759–1774)
4
American Revolution
,_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/600px-Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg)
American Revolution (1775–1783)
4.1 Commander in Chief
4.2 Victory at Boston
4.3 Defeat at New York
4.4 Crossing the Delaware
4.5 1777 campaigns
4.6 Valley Forge
4.7 Sullivan Expedition
4.8
Hudson River
Hudson River and Southern battles
4.9 Arnold's treason
4.10 Difficulties during the winter of 1780–1781
4.11 Victory at Yorktown
4.12 Demobilization and resignation
4.13 Historical evaluation
5 Constitutional Convention 6 Presidency (1789–1797)
6.1 Cabinet and executive departments 6.2 Domestic issues
6.2.1 Public credit and the nation's capital 6.2.2 National bank 6.2.3 Hamilton-Jefferson newspaper war 6.2.4 Whiskey Rebellion
6.3 Foreign affairs 6.4 Farewell Address
7 Retirement (1797–1799)
7.1 American Cincinnatus
8 Death
8.1 Subsequent diagnoses 8.2 Move to new burial site
9 Personal life
9.1 Appearance and health 9.2 Religion 9.3 Freemasonry 9.4 Slavery
10 Historical reputation and legacy
10.1
American Revolutionary War
American Revolutionary War highlights
10.2 Papers
10.3 Monuments and memorials
10.3.1 Gallery
10.4 Postage and currency
10.4.1 Gallery
10.5 Cherry tree 10.6 Personal property auction record
11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Bibliography
14.1
Book
Book sources
14.2 Online sources
14.3 Primary sources
15 External links
Early life (1732–1753)
Further information: Ancestry of George Washington
George Washington
George Washington was the first child of
Augustine Washington
Augustine Washington and his
second wife Mary Ball Washington, born on their Popes Creek Estate
near Colonial Beach in Westmoreland County, Virginia. He was born on
February 11, 1731, according to the
Julian calendar
Julian calendar and Annunciation
Style of enumerating years then in use in the British Empire. The
Gregorian calendar
Gregorian calendar was adopted within the
British Empire
British Empire in 1752, and
it renders a birth date of February 22, 1732.[10][c]
Washington's birthplace
Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from
Sulgrave, England. His great-grandfather
John Washington
John Washington immigrated to
Virginia
Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his
son Lawrence and his grandson, George's father Augustine. Augustine
was a tobacco planter who also tried his hand at iron
manufacturing,[11] and later he was the Justice of the Westmoreland
County Court.[12] In Washington's youth, his family was moderately
prosperous and considered members of Virginia's "country level gentry"
of "middling rank," rather than one of the leading wealthy planter
elite families.[13][14]
Six of Washington's siblings reached maturity, including older
half-brothers Lawrence and Augustine (from his father's first marriage
to Jane Butler Washington), and full siblings Samuel, Elizabeth
(Betty), John Augustine, and Charles. Three siblings died before
adulthood; his sister Mildred died when she was about one, his
half-brother Butler died in infancy, and his half-sister Jane died at
age 12, when George was about two. A fire destroyed his father's Popes
Creek Estate.[15]
Washington's family moved to a home on Ferry Farm, Stafford County,
Virginia
Virginia near Fredericksburg when he was 6 years old, where he spent
much of his boyhood.[14] The main farmhouse was "a fairly common
English building with some regional variations,"[14] 1½ stories high
with several cellars; it was considered architecturally elaborate for
its time and place.[14] The family kept 10 slaves in the main
farmhouse and outbuildings, and another 20 near the farm.[16]
Washington is said to have damaged his father's cherry tree on Ferry
Farm, according to American folk legend.[16]
Washington's father died of a sudden illness in April 1743 when George
was 11 years old, and his half-brother Lawrence became a surrogate
father and role model.
William Fairfax was Lawrence's father-in-law
and the cousin of Virginia's largest landowner Thomas, Lord Fairfax,
and he was also a formative influence.[17][18] William Fairfax's son
George
William Fairfax was a close friend and associate of
Washington.[19] His wife Sally was also a friend of Washington and an
early romantic interest, and he wrote her love letters even after she
had married.[20] Lawrence Washington inherited a plantation from their
father on the
Potomac River
Potomac River at Little Hunting Creek which he named
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon in honor of his commanding officer Vice Admiral Edward
Vernon. Washington inherited
Ferry Farm
Ferry Farm upon his father's death and
eventually acquired
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon after Lawrence's death.[21]
The Washington family Coat of Arms[22]
The death of his father prevented Washington from an education at
England's
Appleby Grammar School
Appleby Grammar School such as his older brothers had
received. He achieved the equivalent of an elementary school education
from a variety of tutors, as well as from a school run by an Anglican
clergyman in or near Fredericksburg.[23][24] His education totaled
seven or eight years, while he lived with relatives at various places
that included the Westmoreland and the Chotank regions of Virginia, as
well as
Ferry Farm
Ferry Farm and Mount Vernon.[25] He was trained in
mathematics, trigonometry, and surveying that developed a natural
talent of draftsmanship and map making.[25] He was also an avid reader
and purchased books on military affairs, agriculture, and history, as
well as the popular novels of his times.[25] There was talk of
securing an appointment for him in the
Royal Navy
Royal Navy when he was 15, but
it was dropped when his widowed mother objected.[26]
In 1751, Washington traveled with Lawrence to
Barbados
Barbados (his only trip
abroad)[27] in the hope that the climate would be beneficial to
Lawrence's health, as he was suffering from tuberculosis. Washington
contracted smallpox during the trip, which left his face slightly
scarred but immunized him against future exposures to the disease.[28]
Lawrence's health failed to improve, and he returned to Mount Vernon
where he died in the summer of 1752.[29] His position as Adjutant
General
General (militia leader) of
Virginia
Virginia was divided into four district
offices after his death, and Washington was appointed by Governor
Dinwiddie as one of the four district adjutants in February 1753, with
the rank of major in the
Virginia
Virginia militia.[30] He also became a
freemason while in Fredericksburg during this period, although his
involvement was minimal.[31]
Surveyor
Washington's introduction to surveying began at an early age through
school exercises that taught him the basics of the profession,
followed by practical experience in the field. His first experiences
at surveying occurred in the territory surrounding Mount Vernon. His
first opportunity as a surveyor occurred in 1748 when he was invited
to join a survey party organized by his neighbor and friend George
Fairfax of Belvoir. Fairfax organized a professional surveying party
to lay out large tracts of land along the border of western Virginia,
where Washington gained invaluable experience in the field.[32]
Washington began his professional career in 1749 at the age of 17,
when he was appointed county surveyor of Culpeper County,
Virginia.[33] He subsequently received a commission and surveyor's
license from the College of William & Mary.[d] He completed his
first survey in less than two days, plotting a 400-acre parcel of
land. He was subsequently able to purchase land in the Shenandoah
Valley, the first of his many land acquisitions in western Virginia.
For the next four years, Washington worked surveying land in Western
Virginia
Virginia for the Ohio Company, a land investment company funded by
Virginia
Virginia investors. He came to the notice of the new lieutenant
governor of
Virginia
Virginia Robert Dinwiddie, thanks to Lawrence's position
as commander of the
Virginia
Virginia militia. In October 1750, Washington
resigned his position as an official surveyor, though he continued to
survey professionally for two more years before receiving a military
appointment as adjutant for southern Virginia. By 1752, Washington
completed close to 200 surveys on numerous properties totaling more
than 60,000 acres. He continued to survey at different times
throughout his life and as late as 1799.[32][35]
French and Indian War
Main articles:
George Washington
George Washington in the
French and Indian War
French and Indian War and
Military career of George Washington
Washington's map accompanying his Journal to the Ohio (1753–54)
Washington began his military service in the French and Indian War[e]
as a major in the militia of the British Province of Virginia. In
1753, he was sent as an ambassador from the British crown to the
French officials and Indians as far north as Erie, Pennsylvania. The
Ohio Company
Ohio Company was an important vehicle through which British investors
planned to expand into the Ohio Valley, opening new settlements and
trading posts for the Indian trade.[36]
In 1753, the French began expanding their military control into the
Ohio Country, a territory already claimed by the British colonies of
Virginia
Virginia and Pennsylvania. These competing claims led to the French
and Indian War (1754–62) and contributed to the start of the global
Seven Years' War
Seven Years' War (1756–63). By chance, Washington became involved in
its beginning.
Beginnings of War
Deputy governor of colonial
Virginia
Virginia
Robert Dinwiddie
Robert Dinwiddie was ordered by
the British government to guard the British territorial claims,
including the
Ohio River
Ohio River basin. In late 1753, Dinwiddie ordered
Washington to deliver a letter asking the French to vacate the Ohio
Valley;[36] he was eager to prove himself as the new adjutant general
of the militia, appointed by the Lieutenant Governor himself only a
year before. During his trip, Washington met with
Tanacharison (also
called "Half-King") and other
Iroquois
Iroquois chiefs allied with England at
Logstown
Logstown to secure their support in case of a military conflict with
the French.[37] He delivered the letter to local French commander
Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, who politely refused to leave.[38]
Washington kept a diary during his expedition which was printed by
William Hunter on Dinwiddie's order and which made Washington's name
recognizable in Virginia.[39] This increased popularity helped him to
obtain a commission to raise a company of 100 men and start his
military career.[40]
An engraving depicting the evening council of
George Washington
George Washington at
Fort Necessity
Dinwiddie sent Washington back to the
Ohio Country
Ohio Country to safeguard an
Ohio Company's construction of a fort at present-day Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. Before he reached the area, a French force drove out
colonial traders and began construction of Fort Duquesne. A small
detachment of French troops led by
Joseph Coulon de Jumonville was
discovered by
Tanacharison and a few warriors east of present-day
Uniontown, Pennsylvania. On May 28, 1754, Washington and some of his
militia unit, aided by their
Mingo
.jpg)
Mingo allies, ambushed the French in what
has come to be called the Battle of Jumonville Glen. Exactly what
happened during and after the battle is a matter of contention, but
several primary accounts agree that the battle lasted about 15
minutes, that Jumonville was killed, and that most of his party were
either killed or taken prisoner. It is not completely clear whether
Jumonville died at the hands of
Tanacharison in cold blood, or was
somehow shot by an onlooker with a musket as he sat with Washington,
or by another means.[41][42] Following the battle, Washington was
given the epithet
Town Destroyer by Tanacharison.[43]
The French responded by attacking and capturing Washington at Fort
Necessity in July 1754.[44] They allowed him to return with his troops
to Virginia. Historian
Joseph Ellis
_(cropped).jpg)
Joseph Ellis concludes that the episode
demonstrated Washington's bravery, initiative, inexperience, and
impetuosity.[45] Upon his return to Virginia, Washington refused to
accept a demotion to the rank of captain, and resigned his
commission.[46] Washington's expedition into the
Ohio Country
Ohio Country had
international consequences; the French accused Washington of
assassinating Jumonville, who they claimed was on a diplomatic
mission.[45] Both
France
France and Great Britain were ready to fight for
control of the region and both sent troops to North America in 1755;
war was formally declared in 1756.[47]
Braddock disaster (1755)
Main article: Braddock Expedition
In 1755, Washington became the senior American aide to British General
Edward Braddock
Edward Braddock on the ill-fated Braddock expedition. This was the
largest British expedition to the colonies, and was intended to expel
the French from the Ohio Country; the first objective was the capture
of Fort Duquesne.[48] Washington initially sought an appointment as a
major from Braddock, but he agreed to serve as a staff volunteer upon
advice that no rank above captain could be given except by London.
During the passage of the expedition, Washington fell ill with severe
headaches and fever. He recommended to Braddock that the army be split
into two divisions when the pace of the troops continued to slow: a
primary and more lightly equipped "flying column" offensive which
could move at a more rapid pace, to be followed by a more heavily
armed reinforcing division. Braddock accepted the recommendation
(likely made in a council of war including other officers) and took
command of the lead division.[49][50]
In the Battle of the Monongahela, the French and their Indian allies
ambushed Braddock's reduced forces and the general was mortally
wounded. After suffering devastating casualties, the British panicked
and retreated in disarray. Washington rode back and forth across the
battlefield, rallying the remnants of the British and Virginian forces
into an organized retreat. In the process, he demonstrated bravery and
stamina, despite his lingering illness. He had two horses shot from
underneath him, while his hat and coat were pierced by several
bullets. Two-thirds of the British force of 976 men were killed or
wounded in the battle. Washington's conduct in the battle redeemed his
reputation among many who had criticized his command in the Battle of
Fort Necessity.[51]
Washington was not included by the succeeding commander Col. Thomas
Dunbar in planning subsequent force movements, whatever responsibility
rested on him for the defeat as a result of his recommendation to
Braddock.[52]
Commander of
Virginia
Virginia Regiment
Lt. Governor Dinwiddie rewarded Washington in 1755 with a commission
as "Colonel of the
Virginia
Virginia Regiment and Commander in Chief of all
forces now raised in the defense of His Majesty's Colony" and gave him
the task of defending Virginia's frontier. The
Virginia
Virginia Regiment was
the first full-time American military unit in the colonies, as opposed
to part-time militias and the British regular units. He was ordered to
"act defensively or offensively" as he thought best.[53] He happily
accepted the commission, but the coveted red coat of officer rank (and
the accompanying pay) continued to elude him. Dinwiddie as well
pressed in vain for the British military to incorporate the Virginia
Regiment into its ranks.[54]
In command of a thousand soldiers, Washington was a disciplinarian who
emphasized training. He led his men in brutal campaigns against the
Indians in the west; his regiment fought 20 battles in 10 months and
lost a third of its men. Washington's strenuous efforts meant that
Virginia's frontier population suffered less than that of other
colonies; Ellis concludes that "it was his only unqualified success"
in that war.[55][56]
In 1758, Washington participated in the
Forbes Expedition
Forbes Expedition to capture
Fort Duquesne. He was embarrassed by a friendly fire episode in which
his unit and another British unit each thought that the other was the
French enemy and opened fire, with 14 dead and 26 wounded in the
mishap. Washington was not involved in any other major fighting on the
expedition, and the British scored a major strategic victory, gaining
control of the
Ohio Valley
Ohio Valley when the French abandoned the fort.
Following the expedition, he retired from his
Virginia
Virginia Regiment
commission in December 1758. He did not return to military life until
the outbreak of the revolution in 1775.[57]
Lessons learned
Washington never gained the commission in the British army that he
yearned for, but in these years he gained valuable military,
political, and leadership skills.[58][59] He closely observed British
military tactics, gaining a keen insight into their strengths and
weaknesses that proved invaluable during the Revolution. Washington
learned to organize, train, drill, and discipline his companies and
regiments. He learned the basics of battlefield tactics from his
observations, readings, and conversations with professional officers,
as well as a good understanding of problems of organization and
logistics.[60] He gained an understanding of overall strategy,
especially in locating strategic geographical points.[61]
Washington demonstrated his resourcefulness and courage in the most
difficult situations, including disasters and retreats. He developed a
command presence, given his size, strength, stamina, and bravery in
battle, which demonstrated to soldiers that he was a natural leader
whom they could follow without question.[62][63] Washington's
fortitude in his early years was sometimes manifested in less
constructive ways. Biographer John R. Alden contends that Washington
offered "fulsome and insincere flattery to British generals in vain
attempts to win great favor" and on occasion showed youthful
arrogance, as well as jealousy and ingratitude in the midst of
impatience.[64]
Historian
Ron Chernow is of the opinion that his frustrations in
dealing with government officials during this conflict led him to
advocate the advantages of a strong national government and a vigorous
executive agency that could get results;[58] other historians tend to
ascribe Washington's position on government to his later American
Revolutionary War service.[f] He developed a very negative idea of the
value of militia, who seemed too unreliable, too undisciplined, and
too short-term compared to regulars.[65] On the other hand, his
experience was limited to command of at most 1,000 men and came only
in remote frontier conditions that were far removed from the urban
situations that he faced during the Revolution at Boston, New York,
Trenton, and Philadelphia.[66]
Between the wars:
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon (1759–1774)
A mezzotint of Martha Washington, based on a 1757 portrait by Wollaston
On January 6, 1759, Washington married wealthy widow Martha Dandridge
Custis, then 28 years old. Surviving letters suggest that he may have
been in love at the time with Sally Fairfax, the wife of a friend.
Nevertheless, George and Martha made a compatible marriage, because
Martha was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a
planter's estate.[67]
Together they raised her children from her previous marriage, John
Parke Custis and Martha Parke (Patsy) Custis. Later, they raised
Martha's grandchildren
Eleanor Parke Custis
Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington
Parke Custis. George and Martha never had any children together; his
earlier bout with smallpox in 1751 may have made him
sterile.[68][69][g] The newlywed couple moved to Mount Vernon, near
Alexandria, where he took up the life of a planter and political
figure.
Washington expanded the estate at
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon after his marriage.
Washington's marriage to Martha greatly increased his property
holdings and social standing, and made him one of Virginia's
wealthiest men. He acquired one-third of the 18,000-acre (73 km2)
Custis estate upon his marriage, worth approximately $100,000, and
managed the remainder on behalf of Martha's children, for whom he
sincerely cared.[70]
In 1754, Lieutenant Governor Dinwiddie had promised land bounties to
the soldiers and officers who volunteered to serve during the French
and Indian War.[71] Washington prevailed upon Lord Botetourt, the new
governor, and he finally fulfilled Dinwiddie's promise in
1769–1770,[71][72] with Washington subsequently receiving title to
23,200 acres (94 km2) where the
Kanawha River
Kanawha River flows into the Ohio
River, in what is now western West Virginia.[73] He also frequently
bought additional land in his own name. By 1775, Washington had
doubled the size of
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (26 km2), and had
increased its slave population to over 100.[74]
As a respected military hero and large landowner, he held local office
and was elected to the
Virginia
Virginia provincial legislature, representing
Frederick County in the
House of Burgesses
House of Burgesses for seven years beginning
in 1758.[74] In the 1758 election, he plied the voters with 170
gallons of rice punch, beer, wine, hard cider, and brandy, though he
was largely absent while serving on the Forbes Expedition.[75] With
the help of several local elites, Washington won election with roughly
forty percent of the vote, defeating three other candidates for the
seat.[76] Early in his legislative career, Washington rarely spoke,
but he became a prominent critic of Britain's taxation and
mercantilist policies in the 1760s.[77]
Portrait of George Washington, oil on canvas, painted by Charles Willson Peale, 1772, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Virginia
Washington lived an aristocratic lifestyle—fox hunting was a
favorite leisure activity.[78][79] He also enjoyed going to dances and
parties, in addition to the theater, races, and cockfights. He also
was known to play cards, backgammon, and billiards.[80] Like most
Virginia
Virginia planters, he imported luxuries and other goods from England
and paid for them by exporting his tobacco crop. By 1764, these
luxuries, coupled with a poor tobacco market, left Washington ₤1,800
in debt.[81] He began to pull himself out of debt in the mid-1760s by
diversifying his previously tobacco-centric business interests into
other ventures and paying more attention to his affairs, especially in
the form of buying fewer imported luxuries.[82]
In 1766, he started switching Mount Vernon's primary cash crop away
from tobacco to wheat, a crop that could be processed and then sold in
various forms in the colonies, and further diversified operations to
include flour milling, fishing, horse breeding, hog production,
spinning, and weaving, and (in the 1790s) he erected a distillery for
whiskey production which yielded more than 1,000 gallons a
month.[82][83]
After a history of epileptic attacks, Patsy Custis died suddenly in
Washington's arms in 1773.[84] The day following Patsy's death,
Washington wrote to Burwell Bassett: "It is an easier to conceive,
than to describe, the distress of this Family, especially that of the
unhappy Parent of our Dear Patcy Custis, when I inform you that
yesterday re- moved the Sweet, Innocent Girl into a more happy &
peaceful abode than any she has met with, the aflicted path she
hitherto has trod."[85] Washington cancelled all business activity
and, for the next three months, was not away from Martha for a single
night.[86] Patsy's death enabled Washington to pay off his British
creditors, since half of her inheritance passed to him.[87][88][89]
Washington was a successful planter of tobacco and wheat, and also a
leader in the social elite in Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he invited
some 2,000 guests to his
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon estate, mostly those whom he
considered "people of rank". As for people not of high social status,
his advice was to "treat them civilly" but "keep them at a proper
distance, for they will grow upon familiarity, in proportion as you
sink in authority".[90] In 1769, he became more politically active,
presenting the
Virginia
Virginia Assembly with legislation to ban the
importation of goods from Great Britain.[91]
American Revolution
American Revolution (1775–1783)
Main articles:
George Washington in the American Revolution
George Washington in the American Revolution and
Military career of George Washington
George Washington, oil on canvas painted by Charles Willson Peale, July 1776, Brooklyn Museum
Washington played a leading military and political role in the
American Revolution. His involvement began in 1767, when he first took
political stands against the various acts of the British Parliament.
He opposed the 1765 Stamp Act, the first direct tax on the colonies
imposed by the British Parliament, which included no representatives
from the colonies; he began taking a leading role in the growing
colonial resistance when protests became widespread against the
Townshend Acts
Townshend Acts (enacted in 1767). In May 1769, he introduced a
proposal, drafted by his friend
George Mason
George Mason and calling for Virginia
to boycott English goods until the Acts were repealed.[92]
Parliament repealed the
Townshend Acts
Townshend Acts in 1770. Washington regarded
the passage of the
Intolerable Acts
,_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/400px-Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg)
Intolerable Acts in 1774 as "an Invasion of our
Rights and Privileges".[93] He told friend Bryan Fairfax, "I think the
Parliament of Great Britain has no more right to put their hands in my
pocket without my consent than I have to put my hands into yours for
money." He also said that Americans must not submit to acts of tyranny
"till custom and use shall make us as tame and abject slaves, as the
blacks we rule over with such arbitrary sway."[94]
In July 1774, he chaired the meeting at which the "Fairfax Resolves"
were adopted, which called for the convening of a Continental
Congress, among other things. In August, Washington attended the First
Virginia
Virginia Convention, where he was selected as a delegate to the First
Continental Congress.[95][96]
Commander in Chief
The colonies went to war after the Battles of Lexington and Concord
near Boston in April 1775. Washington appeared at the Second
Continental Congress
Continental Congress in a military uniform, signaling that he was
prepared for war.[97] He had the prestige, military experience,
charisma, and military bearing of a military leader and was known as a
strong patriot.
Virginia
Virginia was the largest colony and deserved
recognition, and New England—where the fighting began—realized
that it needed Southern support. Washington did not explicitly seek
the office of commander and said that he was not equal to it,[98][99]
but there was no serious competition.[100] Congress created the
Continental Army
Continental Army on June 14, 1775.[101] Washington was nominated by
John Adams
John Adams of Massachusetts, then appointed as a full
General
General and
Commander-in-chief
Commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.[98][102][103] Washington's
refusal to accept a salary earned him a reputation as a "noble and
disinterested" commanding officer.[104]
The British then articulated the peril of Washington and his army; on
August 23, 1775, Britain issued a Royal proclamation labeling American
Patriots as traitors. If they resorted to force, they faced
confiscation of their property, and their leaders were subject to
execution upon the scaffold.[105]
General
General
George Washington
George Washington at Trenton by John Trumbull, Yale University
Art Gallery (1792)
General
General Washington essentially assumed three roles during the war.
First, he provided leadership of troops against the main British
forces in 1775–77 and again in 1781. He lost many of his battles,
but he never surrendered his army during the war, and he continued to
fight the British relentlessly until the war's end. He plotted the
overall strategy of the war, in cooperation with Congress.[106]
Second, he was charged with organizing and training the army. He
recruited regulars and assigned Baron von Steuben to train them, a
veteran of the Prussian general staff. The war effort and getting
supplies to the troops were under the purview of Congress,[107] but
Washington pressured the Congress to provide the essentials.[108] In
June 1776, Congress' first attempt at running the war effort was
established with the committee known as "Board of War and Ordnance",
succeeded by the Board of War in July 1777, a committee which
eventually included members of the military.[107] The command
structure of the armed forces was a hodgepodge of Congressional
appointees (and Congress sometimes made those appointments without
Washington's input) with state-appointments filling the lower ranks.
The results of his general staff were mixed, as some of his favorites
(such as John Sullivan) never mastered the art of command.[106]
Eventually, he found capable officers, such as
General
General Nathanael
Greene,
General
General
Daniel Morgan
Daniel Morgan ("the old wagoner" with whom he had
served in The French and Indian War), Colonel
Henry Knox
Henry Knox (chief of
artillery), and Colonel
Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton (chief of staff). The
American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and
maneuver, and consequently, they lost most of the pitched battles. The
great successes at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777), and Yorktown (1781)
came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers
of troops.[106] Daniel Morgan's annihilation of Banastre Tarleton's
legion of dragoons at Cowpens in February 1781 came as a result of
Morgan's employment of superior line tactics against his British
opponent, resulting in one of the very few double envelopments in
military history, another being Hannibal's defeat of the Romans at
Cannae
Cannae in 216 BC.
The decisive defeat of Col. Patrick Ferguson's Tory Regiment at King's
Mountain demonstrated the superiority of the riflery of American
overmountain men over British-trained troops armed with musket and
bayonet. These overmountain men were led by a variety of elected
officers, including the 6'6" William Campbell who had become one of
Washington's officers by the time of Yorktown. Similarly, Morgan's
Virginia
Virginia riflemen proved themselves superior to the British at
Saratoga, a post-revolutionary war development being the creation of
trained "rifle battalions" in the European armies.
Washington's third and most important role in the war effort was the
embodiment of armed resistance to the Crown, serving as the
representative man of the Revolution. His long-term strategy was to
maintain an army in the field at all times, and eventually this
strategy worked. His enormous personal and political stature and his
political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias,
and the states all pointed toward a common goal. Furthermore, he
permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in
military affairs by voluntarily resigning his commission and
disbanding his army when the war was won, rather than declaring
himself monarch. He also helped overcome the distrust of a standing
army by his constant reiteration that well-disciplined professional
soldiers counted for twice as much as erratic militias. (This was
clearly demonstrated in the rout at Camden, where only the Maryland
and
Delaware
Delaware Continentals held firm under Baron DeKalb.)[109]
Victory at Boston
Washington taking Control of the Continental Army, 1775.
Washington assumed command of the
Continental Army
Continental Army in the field at
Cambridge,
Massachusetts
Massachusetts in July 1775 during the ongoing siege of
Boston. He recognized his army's desperate shortage of gunpowder and
sought new sources. American troops raided British arsenals, including
some in the Caribbean, and some manufacturing was attempted. They
obtained a barely adequate supply (about 2.5 million pounds) by
the end of 1776, mostly from France.[110]
Washington reorganized the army during the long standoff in Boston and
forced the British to withdraw by putting artillery on Dorchester
Heights overlooking the city. The British evacuated Boston in March
1776 and Washington moved his army to New York City.[111]
British newspapers disparaged most of the Patriots, but praised
Washington's personal character and qualities as a military commander
despite his opposition to Britain, which some believed would ruin the
empire.[112]
Defeat at New York
In August 1776, British
General
General William Howe launched a massive naval
and land campaign designed to seize New York. Many of Washington's
generals preferred retreating from the city and engaging in a
defensive strategy, but he believed it better to engage in a major
pitched battle.[113] The
Continental Army
Continental Army under Washington engaged the
enemy for the first time as an army of the
United States
United States at the Battle
of Long Island, the largest battle of the entire war. The Americans
were heavily outnumbered, many men deserted, and Washington was badly
defeated. He and his generals determined on a course of retreat, and
Washington instructed
General
General
William Heath
William Heath to make available every
flat-bottom riverboat and sloop in the area. In little time,
Washington's army crossed the
East River
East River safely under the cover of
darkness to
Manhattan Island
Manhattan Island and did so without loss of life or
materiel.[114]
Washington had considered abandoning the island and Fort Washington,
but he heeded Generals Greene and Putnam's recommendation to attempt a
defense of the fort. He belatedly retreated farther across the Hudson
to Fort Lee to avoid encirclement. With the Americans in retreat, Howe
was able to take the offensive; he landed his troops on the island on
November 16 and surrounded and captured Fort Washington, resulting in
high Continental casualties. Biographer Alden claims that "although
Washington was responsible for the decision to delay the patriots'
retreat, he tried to ascribe blame for the decision to defend Fort
Washington to the wishes of Congress and the bad advice of Nathaniel
Greene."[115]
Crossing the Delaware
Further information:
Washington's crossing of the Delaware River
Washington's crossing of the Delaware River and
Battle of Trenton
Historical depictions of Washington's crossing of the
Delaware
Delaware River
Washington Crossing the Delaware, December 25, 1776, by Emanuel Leutze, 1851[h]
Washington Crossing the Delaware, George Caleb Bingham, Circa 1856-1871
Washington then continued his flight across New Jersey; the future of
the
Continental Army
Continental Army was in doubt due to expiring enlistments and the
string of losses.[117] On the night of December 25-26, 1776, he led
his army across the
Delaware
Delaware River. The next morning, the troops
launched a surprise attack on a Hessian outpost in Trenton, New
Jersey, capturing some 850 prisoners.[118] Washington followed up his
victory at Trenton with another over British regulars at Princeton on
January 3.[119] The British retreated to
New York City
New York City and its
environs, which they held until the peace treaty of 1783.
Washington's victories wrecked the British carrot-and-stick strategy
of showing overwhelming force then offering generous terms. The
Americans would not negotiate for anything short of independence.[120]
These victories alone were not enough to ensure ultimate Patriot
victory, however, since many soldiers did not reenlist or deserted
during the harsh winter. Washington and Congress reorganized the army
with increased rewards for staying and punishment for desertion, which
raised troop numbers effectively for subsequent battles.[121]
In February 1777 while encamped at Morristown, New Jersey, Washington
became convinced that only smallpox inoculation by variolation would
prevent the destruction of his Army. He ordered the inoculation of all
troops and, by some reports, death by smallpox in the ranks dropped
from 17% of all deaths to 1% of all deaths.[122]
1777 campaigns
In late summer of 1777, British
General
General
John Burgoyne
John Burgoyne led a major
invasion army south from Quebec, with the intention of splitting off
rebellious New England. But
General
General Howe in New York took his army
south to
Philadelphia
Philadelphia instead of going up the
Hudson River
Hudson River to join
with Burgoyne near Albany—a major strategic mistake. Meanwhile,
Washington rushed to
Philadelphia
Philadelphia to engage Howe, while closely
following the action in upstate New York, where the patriots were led
by
General
General
Philip Schuyler
Philip Schuyler and his successor Horatio Gates. The
ensuing pitched battles at
Philadelphia
Philadelphia were too complex for
Washington's relatively inexperienced men and they were defeated.[123]
At the
Battle of Brandywine
Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, Howe outmaneuvered
Washington and marched into the American capital at Philadelphia
unopposed on September 26. Washington's army unsuccessfully attacked
the British garrison at Germantown in early October. Meanwhile, to the
north, Burgoyne was beyond the reach of help from Howe, trapped and
forced to surrender after the Battles of Saratoga.[123] This was a
major turning point militarily and diplomatically—the French
responded to Burgoyne's defeat by entering the war, allying with
America and expanding the Revolutionary War into a major worldwide
affair.
Washington's loss at
Philadelphia
Philadelphia prompted some members of Congress to
consider removing Washington from command. This movement termed the
Conway Cabal, failed after Washington's supporters rallied behind
him.[124] Biographer Alden relates, "it was inevitable that the
defeats of Washington's forces and the concurrent victory of the
forces in upper New York should be compared." The zealous admiration
of Washington indeed inevitably waned.
John Adams
John Adams was never a fan of
the southern delegation to the Continental Congress, and he wrote that
"Congress will appoint a thanksgiving; and one cause of it ought to be
that the glory of turning the tide of arms is not immediately due to
the commander-in-chief nor to southern troops. If it had been,
idolatry and adulation would have been unbounded.... Now we can allow
a certain citizen to be wise, virtuous, and good, without thinking him
a deity or a savior."[125]
Valley Forge
Main article: Valley Forge
General
General Washington and Lafayette look over the troops at Valley Forge.
Washington's army of 11,000 went into winter quarters at Valley Forge
north of
Philadelphia
Philadelphia in December 1777. Over the next six months, the
deaths in camp numbered in the thousands, the majority being from
disease, compounded by lack of food and proper clothing, poor shelter,
and the extreme cold. Historians' death toll estimates range from
2,000 to over 3,000 men.[126][127][128] The British were comfortably
quartered in
Philadelphia
Philadelphia and paid for their supplies in sterling. In
contrast, Washington had difficulty procuring supplies from the few
farmers in the area who would not accept rapidly depreciating American
paper currency, while the woodlands about the valley had soon been
exhausted of game. As conditions worsened, Washington was faced with
the task of maintaining morale and discouraging desertion, which had
become common by February.[129]
Washington had repeatedly petitioned the
Continental Congress
Continental Congress for
badly needed provisions but with no success. Finally, on January 24,
1778, five Congressmen came to
Valley Forge
Valley Forge to examine the conditions
of the Continental Army. Washington expressed the urgency of the
situation, exclaiming, "Something must be done. Important alterations
must be made." At this time, he also contended that Congress should
take control of the army supply system, pay for its supplies, and
promptly expedite them as they became necessary.[130] In response to
Washington's urgent appeal, Congress gave full support to funding the
supply lines of the army, which also resulted in reorganizing the
commissary department, which controlled gathering the supplies for the
army. By late February, there were adequate supplies flowing
throughout camp.[130]
The next spring, a revitalized army emerged from
Valley Forge
Valley Forge in good
order, thanks in part to a full-scale training program supervised by
General
General von Steuben.[131] The British evacuated
Philadelphia
Philadelphia for New
York in June 1778. Washington summoned a council of war with Generals
Lee, Greene, Wayne, and Lafayette. He decided to make a partial attack
on the retreating British at the Battle of Monmouth. The British were
commanded by Sir Henry Clinton, Howe's successor. On June 28, Lee and
Lafayette moved with 4,000 men. Without Washington's immediate
knowledge they attempted to launch but bungled the first attack at the
British rear guard. Clinton came about and offered stiff resistance,
also with 4,000 men and waiting in anticipation, keeping the Americans
in check. After sharp words of criticism, Washington relieved Lee and
continued fighting to an effective draw in one of the war's largest
battles. When nightfall came, the fighting came to a stop and the
British continued their retreat and headed towards New York, where
Washington soon moved his army just outside the city.[132][133]
Sullivan Expedition
Main article: Sullivan Expedition
In the summer of 1779, Washington and Congress decided to strike the
Iroquois
Iroquois warriors of the "Six Nations" in a campaign to force
Britain's Indian allies out of New York, which they had used as a base
to attack American settlements around New England.[134] In June 1779,
the Indian warriors joined with Tory rangers led by Colonel William
Butler and slew over 200 frontiersmen, using barbarities normally
shunned, and laid waste to the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania. One
British officer who witnessed the Tory brutality said that the
redcoats on return to England would "scalp every son of a bitch of
them."[135] In August 1779,
General
General John Sullivan led a military
operation that destroyed at least 40
Iroquois
Iroquois villages, burning all
available crops. Few people were killed as the Indians fled to British
protection in Canada. Sullivan later reported that "the immediate
objects of this expedition are accomplished, viz: total ruin of the
Indian settlements and the destruction of their crops, which were
designed for the support of those inhuman barbarians."[136]
Hudson River
Hudson River and Southern battles
Washington at this time moved his headquarters from Middlebrook in New
Jersey up to New Windsor on the Hudson, with an army of 10,000. The
British, led by Clinton, made a move up the Hudson against American
posts at Verplanck's Point and Stony Point, and both places succumbed;
but a counter-offensive was briefly successful by the patriots led by
General
General Anthony Wayne. Clinton was able to shut off Kings Ferry in the
end, but it was a strategic loss; he could proceed no farther up the
river due to American fortifications and Washington's army. The
skirmishes at Verplanck's Point and at Stony Point demonstrated that
the continental infantry had become quite formidable and were an
enormous boost to morale.[137]
Washington went into quarters at Morristown during the winter of
1779–1780, which represented the worst suffering for the army during
the war. The temperatures fell to 16 below zero, the New York Harbor
was frozen over, and snow and ice covered the ground for weeks, with
the troops again lacking provisions for a time as at Valley
Forge.[138] In late 1779, Clinton moved his forces south to Charleston
for an offensive against the patriots led by Benjamin Lincoln. After
his success there, Clinton returned victorious to New York, leaving
Cornwallis in the south. Congress replaced Lincoln with Gates, despite
Washington's recommendation of Greene. Gates failed in South Carolina
and was then replaced by Greene. The British at the time seemed to
have the South almost in their grasp. Despite this news, Washington
was encouraged when he learned in mid-1780 that Lafayette had returned
from
France
France with additional naval assets and forces.[138]
Arnold's treason
Main article: Military career of Benedict Arnold, 1777–79
A page from the Culper Ring's codebook, listing the men whom Washington gathered to be agents
In the summer of 1778,
George Washington
George Washington ordered Major Benjamin
Tallmadge to form the Culper Ring. This group was composed of a select
few trustworthy individuals whose purpose was to collect information
about the British movements and activities in New York City. The Ring
is famous for uncovering Benedict Arnold's intentions of treason,[139]
which shocked Washington because Arnold was someone who had
contributed significantly to the war effort. Arnold was embittered by
his dealings with Congress over rank and finances, as well as the
alliance with France, so he conspired with the British in a plan to
seize the post that he commanded at West Point. Washington just missed
apprehending him, but did capture his co-conspirator Major John
André, a British intelligence officer under Clinton who was hanged by
order of a court-martial called by Washington.[140]
Difficulties during the winter of 1780–1781
Main articles:
Pennsylvania Line mutiny
Pennsylvania Line mutiny and Pompton Mutiny
Washington's army went into winter quarters at New Windsor in 1780 and
suffered again for lack of supplies. Washington prevailed upon
Congress as well as state officials to come to their aid with
provisions. He sympathized with their suffering, saying that he hoped
that the army would not "continue to struggle under the same
difficulties they have hitherto endured, which I cannot help remarking
seem to reach the bounds of human patience".[141]
Victory at Yorktown
General
General Washington and the comte de Rochambeau at Yorktown by Auguste
Couder, 1836
In July 1780, 5,000 veteran French troops led by the comte de
Rochambeau arrived at
Newport, Rhode Island
Newport, Rhode Island to aid in the war.[142]
French naval forces then landed, led by Admiral François Joseph Paul
de Grasse. At first Washington hoped to bring the allied fight to New
York and to end the war there, but Rochambeau advised de Grasse that
Cornwallis in
Virginia
Virginia was the better target. Admiral de Grasse
followed this advice and arrived off the
Virginia
Virginia coast. Washington
immediately saw the advantage created, made a feinting move with his
force towards Clinton in New York, and then headed south to
Virginia.[143]
Washington's Continental Army, also newly funded by $20,000 in French
gold, delivered the final blow to the British in 1781, after a French
naval victory allowed American and French forces to trap a British
army in Virginia, preventing reinforcement by Clinton from the
North.[144] The surrender at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, marked the
end of major fighting in North America.[145] Cornwallis failed to
appear at the official surrender ceremony, and sent
General
General Charles
O'Hara as his proxy; Washington then had
General
General Benjamin Lincoln
accept the surrender in his place.[146]
Demobilization and resignation
Substantial combat had ended but the war had not, and a formal treaty
of peace was months away. The British still had 26,000 troops
occupying New York City, Charleston, and Savannah, and had a powerful
fleet. The French army and navy departed, so the Americans were on
their own in 1782–83. Money matters fed anxiety; the treasury was
empty, and the unpaid soldiers were growing restive almost to the
point of mutiny. At one point, they forced an adjournment of the
Congress from
Philadelphia
Philadelphia to Princeton. Washington dispelled unrest
among officers by suppressing the
Newburgh Conspiracy
Newburgh Conspiracy in March 1783,
and Congress came up with the promise of a five-year bonus.[147]
General
General
George Washington
George Washington Resigning His Commission by John Trumbull,
Capitol Rotunda
Capitol Rotunda (commissioned 1817)
With the initial peace treaty articles ratified in April 1783, a
recently formed Congressional committee under Hamilton was considering
needs and plans for a peacetime army. On May 2, 1783, the Commander in
Chief submitted his Sentiments on a Peace Establishment[148] to the
Committee, essentially providing an official Continental Army
position. The original proposal was defeated in Congress in two votes
(May 1783, October 1783), with a truncated version also being rejected
in April 1784.[149]
By the Treaty of Paris signed on September 3, 1783, Great Britain
recognized the independence of the United States. Washington disbanded
his army and gave an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers on
November 2.[150] On November 25, the British evacuated New York City,
and Washington and the governor took possession. At
Fraunces Tavern
Fraunces Tavern on
December 4, Washington formally bade his officers farewell, and he
resigned his commission as commander-in-chief on December 23, 1783, to
the
Continental Congress
Continental Congress in the Old Senate Chamber of the Maryland
State House in Annapolis, Maryland.[151] "I consider it an
indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life,
by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection
of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to
his holy keeping."[152] Historian
Gordon S. Wood
Gordon S. Wood concludes that "The
greatest act of his life, the one that gave him his greatest fame, was
his resignation as commander in chief of the American forces."[153]
King George III
King George III called Washington "the greatest character of the age"
because of this.[154]
Washington later submitted a formal account of the expenses that he
had personally advanced the army over the eight-year conflict of about
$450,000. It is said to have been detailed regarding small items and
vague concerning large ones, and included the expenses incurred from
Martha's visits to his headquarters, as well as his compensation for
service—none of which had been drawn during the war.[155]
Historical evaluation
Historians debate whether Washington preferred to fight major battles
or to utilize a Fabian strategy[i] to harass the British with quick,
sharp attacks followed by a retreat so that the larger British army
could not catch him.[j] His southern commander Greene did use Fabian
tactics in 1780–81; Washington did so only in fall 1776 to spring
1777, after losing
New York City
New York City and seeing much of his army melt
away. Trenton and Princeton were Fabian examples. By summer 1777
Washington had rebuilt his strength and his confidence; he stopped
using raids and went for large-scale confrontations, as at Brandywine,
Germantown, Monmouth, and Yorktown.[156]
Constitutional Convention
Main article: Constitutional Convention (United States)
Signing of the U.S. Constitution by Howard Chandler Christy, 1940
Washington's retirement to personal business at
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon was
short-lived. He made an exploratory trip to the western frontier in
1784 and inspected his land holdings in Western
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania that had
been earned decades earlier for his service in the French and Indian
War.[98] There he confronted squatters, including David Reed and the
Covenanters; they vacated, but only after losing a court decision
heard in
Washington, Pennsylvania
Washington, Pennsylvania in 1786.[157] He also facilitated
the creation of the Potomac Company, a public–private partnership
that sought to link the
Potomac River
Potomac River with the Ohio River, but
technical and financial challenges rendered the company
unprofitable.[158]
After much reluctance, he was persuaded to attend the Constitutional
Convention in
Philadelphia
Philadelphia during the summer of 1787 as a delegate
from Virginia, where he was unanimously elected as president of the
Convention.[159] He held considerable criticism of the Articles of
Confederation of the thirteen colonies, for the weak central
government which it established, referring to the Articles as no more
than "a rope of sand" to support the new nation.[160] Washington's
view for the need of a strong federal government grew out of the
recent war, as well as the inability of the
Continental Congress
Continental Congress to
rally the states to provide for the needs of the military, as was
clearly demonstrated for him during the winter at Valley Forge. The
general populace, however, did not share Washington's views of a
strong federal government binding the states together, comparing such
a prevailing entity to the British Parliament that previously ruled
and taxed the colonies.[161]
Washington's participation in the debates was minor, although he cast
his vote when called upon; his prestige facilitated the collegiality
and productivity of the delegates. After a couple of months into the
task, Washington told Alexander Hamilton, "I almost despair of seeing
a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention and do
therefore repent having had any agency in the business."[162]
Following the Convention, his support convinced many, but not all of
his colleagues, to vote for ratification. He unsuccessfully lobbied
anti-federalist Patrick Henry, saying that "the adoption of it under
the present circumstances of the Union is in my opinion desirable;" he
declared that the only alternative would be anarchy. Nevertheless, he
did not consider it appropriate to cast his vote in favor of adoption
for Virginia, since he was expected to be nominated president under
it.[163] The new Constitution was subsequently ratified by all
thirteen states.[164] The delegates to the convention designed the
presidency with Washington in mind, allowing him to define the office
by establishing precedent once elected.[165] Washington thought that
the achievements were monumental once they were finally
completed.[162]
Presidency (1789–1797)
Main article: Presidency of George Washington
Lansdowne portrait, painted by
Gilbert Stuart
Gilbert Stuart in 1796
The Electoral College unanimously elected Washington as the first
president in 1789[k] and again in 1792.[167] He remains the only
president to receive the totality of electoral votes.[l] John Adams
received the next highest vote total and was elected vice president.
Washington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789, taking the first
presidential oath of office on the balcony of
Federal Hall
Federal Hall in New York
City.[168] The oath was administered by Chancellor Robert R.
Livingston: "I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the
Office of
President of the United States
President of the United States and will, to the best of my
ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United
States." Historian John R. Alden indicates that Washington added the
words "so help me God."[169]
The 1st
United States
United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of
$25,000 a year—a large sum in 1789, valued at about $340,000 in 2015
dollars.[m] Washington faced financial troubles then, yet he initially
declined the salary. At the urging of Congress, he ultimately accepted
the payment to avoid setting a precedent whereby the presidency would
be perceived as limited only to independently wealthy individuals who
could serve without any salary.[170] He was aware that everything he
did set a precedent, and he attended carefully to the pomp and
ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were
suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts.[171][n]
To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more
majestic names proposed by the Senate.[172]
Washington proved an able administrator and established many
precedents in the functions of the presidency, including messages to
Congress and the cabinet form of government.[8] He set the standard
for tolerance of opposition voices, despite fears that a democratic
system would lead to political violence, and he conducted a smooth
transition of power to his successor.[7] He was an excellent delegator
and judge of talent and character; he talked regularly with department
heads and listened to their advice before making a final
decision.[173] In handling routine tasks, he was "systematic, orderly,
energetic, solicitous of the opinion of others ... but decisive,
intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions
with them."[174] After reluctantly serving a second term, Washington
refused to run for a third, establishing the tradition of a maximum of
two terms for a president, which was solidified by Thomas Jefferson
and James Madison.[175]
During his first term in office, Washington had to contend with major
problems, old and new. The
United States
United States was not completely unified;
North Carolina
North Carolina and
Rhode Island
Rhode Island had not yet formally joined the Union,
and the status of the independent
Vermont Republic
Vermont Republic was uncertain.
Great Britain refused to relinquish its forts in the American
West.[176] Additionally, the
United States
United States Army was minuscule and the
United States
United States Navy did not exist. The old Confederation lacked the
powers to handle the needed workload. It had weak leadership, no
executive, a small bureaucracy of clerks, a large debt, worthless
paper money, and no taxing power. [176]
Cabinet and executive departments
Congress created executive departments during Washington's first
months in office in 1789, including the State Department on July 27,
the Department of War in early August, and the Treasury Department on
September 2. The President also received two additional officers
without departments: the Attorney
General
General and Postmaster General.
Washington appointed Richmond lawyer
Edmund Randolph
Edmund Randolph as Attorney
General
General and
Samuel Osgood
Samuel Osgood as Postmaster General. He also appointed
fellow Virginian
Thomas Jefferson
.jpg/440px-Official_Presidential_portrait_of_Thomas_Jefferson_(by_Rembrandt_Peale,_1800).jpg)
Thomas Jefferson to be Secretary of State and Henry
Knox as Secretary of War. Finally, he appointed
Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton to
head the Treasury Department.[177] Washington's cabinet eventually
developed into a consultation and advisory body, although this was not
mandated by the Constitution.[178]
During Washington's administration, the President was given broad
powers for removing officials in the executive branch. Congress passed
a bill sponsored by
James Madison
James Madison that gave the President the power to
remove public officials whose appointments mandated Senatorial
approval. In 1789, Vice President
John Adams
John Adams cast the deciding vote in
the Senate against a bill that would have mandated senatorial consent
for the removal of Senate-confirmed federal and cabinet
appointments.[179][180] The bill had been sponsored by Pennsylvania
Senator William Maclay.[180]
Washington's cabinet members were known for their dissension, forming
rival parties and having sharply divided views, the most fierce
between Hamilton and Jefferson.[181] Jefferson described his
relationship with Hamilton as being "daily pitted… like two
cocks."[176] Knox almost always sided with Hamilton, while Randolph
tried to remain neutral but tended to side more with Jefferson, his
fellow Virginian.[176] Washington restricted cabinet discussions to
topics of his own choosing, without participating in debate.[176] He
occasionally requested cabinet opinions in writing, and he expected
his department heads to carry out his decisions without
complaint.[176] Hamilton played an active role advising Congress,
including written reports and using influence over congressional
committee leaders.[176]
Washington only vetoed two minor pieces of legislation due to his
belief that the veto power was meant to prevent unconstitutional
legislation rather than to advance political agenda.[182] At official
dinners, he was silent and maintained decorum, in part because he was
not a conversationalist, and in part for the dignity of the
office.[179] He took two tours of the United States, the first to New
England in the fall of 1789 and the second in April 1791 to the
southern states.[179]
Domestic issues
George Washington
George Washington by Rembrandt Peale,
De Young Museum
De Young Museum (ca. 1850)
Washington was not a member of any political party and hoped that they
would not be formed, fearing conflict that would undermine
republicanism.[183] His closest advisors formed two factions, however,
thereby setting the framework for the future First Party System.
Secretary of the Treasury
Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton had plans to establish
the national credit and to build a financially powerful nation, and he
formed the basis of the Federalist Party. Secretary of State Thomas
Jefferson was the founder of the Jeffersonian Republicans, and he
strenuously opposed Hamilton's agenda. Washington typically favored
Hamilton over Jefferson, and it was Hamilton's agenda that went into
effect. Jefferson's political actions, his support of Philip Freneau's
National Gazette,[184] and his attempt to undermine Hamilton nearly
led Washington to dismiss him from his cabinet, though he ultimately
left the cabinet voluntarily. Washington never forgave him and never
spoke to him again.[185] Hamilton's fiscal recommendations, created
bitter controversy, during Washington's presidency.[186]
Public credit and the nation's capital
The most pressing fiscal problem of the new administration was the
public credit of the United States.[186] On January 14, 1790, Hamilton
submitted his Report Relative to a Provision for the Support of Public
Credit to Congress which culminated in the
Funding Act of 1790 and the
Residence Act, signed into law by Washington on August 4.[187] Both
laws established the creditworthiness of the new government, as well
as its permanent location. Hamilton divided the public debt into three
categories, $11.7 million foriegn, $40.4 million domestic, and $25
million incurred by state debts (more so in the North).[186] Hamilton
called for the discharge of foriegn debt in full, face value payment
of the principle of the domestic debt, and the assumption of state
debts. [186] Congress authorized the assumption and payment of these
debts, and provided funding through customs duties and excise taxes.
Controversy incurred when Represenstative James Madison, Jefferson's
ally in the House, objected to almost $22 million certificates of debt
to suppliers during the war, be paid to current owners (speculators),
rather than to their original owners.[186] Madison's objections of
discrimination, however, were defeated by Hamilton supporters.[186]
Washington's congressional allies and Hamilton's behind-the-scenes
lobbying enabled passage of the two laws.[187]
The President's House in
Philadelphia
Philadelphia was Washington's official
residence from 1790 to 1797
The national debt increased during Hamilton's service as Secretary of
the Treasury, but the nation established its good credit. Many in the
Congress and elsewhere in the government profited from trading in the
debt paper which was assumed. Many of Washington's fellow Virginians
and others were vexed by this, but he considered that they had
adequate redress through their Congressional representatives.[188]
A compromise was reached over the location of the nation's capital: it
would be situated in
Philadelphia
Philadelphia for a decade, and then it would be
permanently located near Georgetown on the Potomac River.[186] The
Residence Act
.svg/280px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_(obverse).svg.png)
Residence Act authorized the President to select the specific location
on the Potomac for the seat of the government. He was to appoint three
commissioners to survey and acquire property for it, and Washington
personally oversaw this effort throughout his term in office. In 1791,
the commissioners named the seat of government "The City of Washington
in the Territory of Columbia" to honor Washington. In 1800, the
Territory of Columbia became the District of Columbia when the federal
government moved to the site, according to the provisions of the
Residence Act.[189]
National bank
Further information: First Bank of the United States
Hamilton's most controversial proposal was the establishment of a
National Bank in Hamilton's Report on a National Bank, debated by the
Second Congress, that assembled December 6, 1790.[190] Hamilton
proposed Congress to charter a national bank capitalized at $10
million, one-fifth provided by the federal government, and the rest by
individual investors, whose main purpose was to assist the nation's
financial operations. [190] Although Madison and Jefferson objected,
the bank easily passed Congress and the law was presented to
Washington for signing on February 14, 1791. [190] Washington asked
for advise from his cabinet, Jefferson and Randoph strongly opposed
the new bank constitutionally, while Hamilton supported the bank,
believing it would legally be operated on the government's enumerated
powers.[190] Washington sided with Hamilton and signed the legislation
on February 25, however, the rift between Hamilton and Jefferson
widened and became openly hostile.[190] Historians believe that the
Hamilton-Jefferson rift was a manifistation of divisions between the
North and South over slavery.[190]
Hamilton-Jefferson newspaper war
State Department translator
Philip Freneau
Philip Freneau created the anti-Hamilton
newspaper the National Gazette
In 1791, Jefferson and Madison encouraged revolutionary poet Philip
Freneau to form the National Gazette, a newspaper to counter the
pro-Hamilton press.[191] Jefferson hired Freneau and had him work in
the State Department as a translator while Madison looked for
newspaper subscribers.[191] The Republican opposition newspapers led
by the
National Gazette
National Gazette indicted the administration by the first half
of 1792, saying that Hamilton was a "prime minister" and was
conspiring against the United States.[192] By the summer, a political
war developed when Hamilton accused Jefferson on July 25 of being
behind the Republican press that was attacking Washington's
presidency.[193] In a Gazette of the
United States
United States article, Hamilton
exposed Freneau as editor of the National Gazette, claiming that he
was being paid by Jefferson's State Department.[194] A few weeks
later, Hamilton demanded that Jefferson resign if he could not support
Washington.[195] Rather than respond publically, Jefferson told
Washington that Hamilton's fiscal system would undermine and overthrow
the republic.[196]
Washington pleaded with his two secretaries by letters to stop the
open warfare for the sake of the nation, but Hamilton and Jefferson
politely ignored the president's advice.[197] To keep party strife
under control, Washington gave up hope that he would retire after his
first term.[196] The feud lasted another year between Jefferson and
Hamilton.[195] After Washington was reelected to the presidency,
Jefferson resigned office in December, 1793.[198] The feud between
Hamilton and Jefferson led to the well-defined Federalist and
Republican parties and their divergent theories of government.[199] By
1794, party affiliation was necessary for election to Congress.[200]
Whiskey Rebellion
See also: Whiskey Rebellion
In 1791, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits, partly
as a result of the Copper Panic of 1789, and this led to protests in
frontier districts, especially Pennsylvania. Washington ordered the
protesters to appear in U.S. district court, but the protests turned
into full-scale defiance of federal authority in 1794 known as the
Whiskey Rebellion. The federal army was too small to be used, so
Washington invoked the
Militia Act of 1792
Militia Act of 1792 to summon militias from
Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey.[201] The governors
sent the troops, with Washington taking initial command. He
subsequently named Henry "Lighthorse Harry" Lee as field commander to
lead the troops into the rebellious districts. The rebels dispersed
and there was no fighting, as Washington's forceful action proved that
the new government could protect itself. This represented the premier
instance of the federal government using military force to exert
authority over the states and citizens[202] and is also the only time
that a sitting U.S. president personally commanded troops in the
field.[203]
Foreign affairs
Miniature Portrait of Washington by Robert Field (1800)
In April 1792, the
French Revolutionary Wars
French Revolutionary Wars broke out between Great
Britain and its allies and revolutionary France; Washington, with
cabinet approval, proclaimed American neutrality. The revolutionary
government of
France
France sent diplomat
Edmond-Charles Genêt
Edmond-Charles Genêt to America,
called "Citizen Genêt". He was welcomed with great enthusiasm and
began promoting the case for France, using a network of new Democratic
Societies in major cities. He even issued French letters of marque and
reprisal to French ships manned by American sailors so that they could
capture British merchant ships. Washington denounced the societies and
demanded that the French government recall Genêt, which they
did.[204]
Hamilton formulated the
Jay Treaty
Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with
Great Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial
debts remaining from the Revolution;[205]
John Jay
.jpg/440px-John_Jay_(Gilbert_Stuart_portrait).jpg)
John Jay negotiated and
signed the treaty on November 19, 1794. Jeffersonians supported France
and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington listened to both sides,
then announced his strong support, which mobilized public opinion and
was pivotal in securing ratification in the Senate on June 24, 1795 by
the requisite two-thirds majority.[206][207]
The British agreed to depart from their forts around the Great Lakes,
and the United States-Canada boundary had to be re-adjusted. Numerous
pre-Revolutionary debts were liquidated, and the British opened their
West Indies colonies to American trade. Most importantly, the treaty
delayed war with Great Britain and instead brought a decade of
prosperous trade. The treaty angered the French and became a central
issue in many political debates.[208] Relations with France
deteriorated after the treaty was signed, leaving succeeding president
John Adams
John Adams with the prospect of war.[209][210]
Farewell Address
Main article: George Washington's Farewell Address
Washington's Farewell Address
Washington's Farewell Address (September 19, 1796)
Washington's Farewell Address
Washington's Farewell Address was issued as a public letter in 1796
and was one of the most influential statements of republicanism,
drafted primarily by Washington himself with help from Hamilton. It
gives advice on the necessity and importance of national union, the
value of the Constitution and the rule of law, the evils of political
parties, and the proper virtues of a republican people. He referred to
morality as "a necessary spring of popular government", and said,
"Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on
minds of peculiar structure, reason, and experience both forbid us to
expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious
principle."[211]
The address warned against foreign influence in domestic affairs and
American meddling in European affairs, and against bitter partisanship
in domestic politics. He also called for men to move beyond
partisanship and serve the common good. He cautioned against
"permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world",[212]
saying that the
United States
United States must concentrate primarily on American
interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but
advised against involvement in European wars and entering into
long-term "entangling" alliances, while advancing the general idea of
non-involvement in foreign affairs. The Farewell Address made no clear
distinction between domestic and foreign policies; John Quincy Adams
interpreted Washington's policy as advocating a strong nationalist
foreign policy while not limiting America's international activities.
The address quickly set American values regarding foreign affairs.
Washington's policy of non-involvement in the foreign affairs of the
Old World was largely embraced by the founding generation of American
statesmen, including John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James
Madison.[213][214]
Retirement (1797–1799)
A map of the
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon plantation and lands
Washington retired from the presidency in March 1797 and returned to
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He devoted much time to
his plantations and other business interests, including his
distillery, which produced its first batch of spirits in February
1797.[215] His plantation operations were only minimally
profitable.[6] His lands in the west (Piedmont) yielded little income
because they were under attack by Indians, and the squatters living
there refused to pay him rent. Washington attempted to sell off these
holdings but failed to obtain the price that he desired. Meanwhile, he
was losing money at
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon due to a glut of unproductive slaves,
which he declined to sell due to a desire to keep families intact. In
addition, some of the slaves belonged to Martha, but the groups had
been living together for years and there had been much intermarriage
among them.[216]
Most Americans assumed that he was rich because of the well-known
"glorified façade of wealth and grandeur" at Mount Vernon,[217] but
nearly all of Washington's wealth was tied up in land or slaves.
Historians estimate that his estate was worth about $1 million in
1799 dollars, equivalent to about $19.9 million in 2014.[218]
By 1798, relations with
France
France had deteriorated to the point that war
seemed imminent. President Adams offered Washington a commission as
lieutenant general on July 4, 1798, and as
Commander-in-chief
Commander-in-chief of the
armies raised or to be raised for service in a prospective war. He
accepted and served as the senior officer of the
United States
United States Army
from July 13, 1798 until his death 17 months later. He participated in
planning for a Provisional Army to meet any emergency that might arise
but avoided involvement in details as much as possible. He delegated
most of the work to Hamilton, including active leadership of the army;
Hamilton was serving as a major general in the U.S. Army at the time.
No French army invaded the
United States
United States during this period, and
Washington did not assume a field command.[219][220] This was the only
instance where a former President later served as an official
presidential appointee up until 1921, when President Warren G. Harding
appointed former President
William Howard Taft
William Howard Taft to the position of
Chief Justice of the United States.
American Cincinnatus
During the Revolutionary and Early Republican periods of American
history, many commentators compared Washington with Roman aristocrat
and statesman Cincinnatus. The comparison arose as Washington, like
Cincinnatus, commanded the
Continental Army
Continental Army only until the British had
been defeated. Thereafter, he returned as quickly as possible to
cultivating his lands instead of seeking great political
power.[221][222] Poet
Philip Freneau
Philip Freneau remarked on Washington's
resignation in December 1783 and his decision to retire to Mount
Vernon:
Thus He, whom Rome's proud legions sway'd Return'd, and sought his sylvan shade.[223]
Lord Byron's Ode to Napoleon also lionized Washington as "the Cincinnatus of the West".[224] Death On Thursday, December 12, 1799, Washington spent several hours inspecting his plantation on horseback, in snow, hail, and freezing rain; that evening, he ate his supper without changing from his wet clothes.[225] He awoke the next morning with a severe sore throat and became increasingly hoarse as the day progressed, yet still rode out in the heavy snow, marking trees for cutting on the plantation. Some time around 3 a.m. that Saturday, he suddenly awoke with severe difficulty breathing and almost completely unable to speak or swallow.[225] He was a firm believer in bloodletting, which was a standard medical practice of that era, and he had used it to treat various ailments of slaves on his plantation. He ordered estate overseer Albin Rawlins to remove nearly a pint of his blood.[226] Three physicians were summoned, including Washington's personal physician Dr. James Craik,[227] along with Dr. Gustavus Brown and Dr. Elisha Dick. Craik and Brown thought that Washington had "quinsey" or "quincy", while Dick thought that the condition was more serious or a "violent inflammation of the throat".[228] By the time that the three physicians finished their treatments and bloodletting of the president, half or more of his total blood content was removed over the course of just a few hours.[225][229] Dick recognized that the bloodletting and other treatments were failing, and he proposed performing an emergency tracheotomy as a last-ditch effort to save Washington's life. Few American doctors were then familiar with this procedure and the other two doctors disapproved.[225][230] Washington died at home around 10 p.m. on Saturday, December 14, 1799, aged 67. In his journal, Tobias Lear recorded Washington's last words as "'Tis well."[231]
Published regulations for the funeral procession in honor of Washington (in New York City)
A funeral was held on December 18, 1799 at Mount Vernon, where
Washington's body was interred.[232] Congress passed a joint
resolution to construct a marble monument for his body in the planned
crypt below the rotunda of the center section of the Capitol (then
still under construction), a plan acquiesced to by Martha.[233] In
December 1800, the House passed an appropriations bill for $200,000 to
build the mausoleum, which was to be a pyramid with a 100-foot
(30 m) square base. Southern representatives and senators opposed
the plan and defeated the measure because they felt that it was best
to have Washington's body remain at Mount Vernon.[234]
Throughout the world, people admired Washington and were saddened by
his death. In the United States, memorial processions were held in
major cities and thousands wore mourning clothes for months. Martha
Washington wore a black mourning cape for one year. In France, First
Consul
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte ordered ten days of mourning throughout the
country.[235] Ships of the British Royal Navy's Channel Fleet lowered
their flags to half mast to honor his passing.[236]
To protect their privacy,
Martha Washington
Martha Washington burned the correspondence
which they had exchanged; only five letters between the couple are
known to have survived, two letters from Martha to George and three
from him to her.[237][238]
Subsequent diagnoses
The diagnosis of Washington's final illness and the immediate cause of
his death have been subjects of debate since the day he
died.[225][229][239] In the days immediately following his death,
Craik and Dick's published account stated that they felt that his
symptoms had been consistent with cynanche trachealis, a term of that
period used to describe severe inflammation of the structures of the
upper airway.[229][230][240] Even at that early date, there were
accusations of medical malpractice, with some believing that
Washington had been bled to death.[229][230] Various modern medical
authors have speculated that Washington probably died from a severe
case of epiglottitis which was complicated by the given treatments
(all of which were accepted medical practice in Washington's day),
most notably the massive deliberate blood loss, which almost certainly
caused hypovolemic shock.[o]
Move to new burial site
The Washington family tomb at
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon (2014)
In 1830 a disgruntled ex-employee of the estate attempted to steal
Washington's skull from the original tomb. [241] The next year a new
vault was constructed at
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon to receive George and Martha
Washington's remains, along with other relatives buried in the
original tomb.[242]
The sarcophagi of George (right) and Martha (left) Washington at the entrance to the Washington family tomb (2011)
A joint Congressional committee debated the removal of President
Washington's body from
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol in early
1832. The crypt was built by architect
Charles Bulfinch
Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s
during the reconstruction of the burned-out capitol after the British
had set it afire in August 1814, during the Burning of Washington.
Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift
between North and South. Congressman
Wiley Thompson of Georgia
expressed the Southerners' fear when he said, "Remove the remains of
our venerated Washington from their association with the remains of
his consort and his ancestors, from
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon and from his native
State, and deposit them in this capitol, and then let a severance of
the Union occur, and behold the remains of Washington on a shore
foreign to his native soil."[234]
On October 7, 1837 George Washington's remains, still in the original
lead coffin, were placed within a marble sarcophagus designed by
William Strickland and constructed by John Struthers.[243][244] The
sarcophagus was sealed and encased with planks while an outer vault
was constructed around it.[245] The outer vault contains the
sarcophagi of George and Martha Washington, the inner vault contains
the remains of other Washington family members and relatives.[242]
Personal life Appearance and health
The Washington Family
The Washington Family by Edward Savage, painted between 1789 and 1796,
shows (from left to right):
George Washington
George Washington Parke Custis, George
Washington, Eleanor Parke Custis, Martha Washington, and an enslaved
servant, probably William Lee or Christopher Sheels.
As a young man, Washington had red hair.[246] A popular myth is that
he wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at the time. Washington
did not wear a wig. Instead, he powdered his hair,[247] as is
represented in several portraits, including the well-known, unfinished
Gilbert Stuart
Gilbert Stuart depiction called the "Athenaeum Portrait".[248]
Washington's height was variously recorded as 6 ft (1.83 m)
to 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m). He registered six feet three and
one-half inches when measured for his coffin.[247] He had unusually
great physical strength that amazed younger men. Jefferson called
Washington "the best horseman of his age", and both American and
European observers praised his riding. The horsemanship benefited his
hunting, a favorite hobby. Washington was an excellent dancer and
frequently attended the theater, often making Shakespearean references
in his letters.[249]
Washington drank in moderation and precisely recorded gambling wins
and losses. He disliked the excessive drinking, gambling, smoking, and
profanity that were common in colonial Virginia. Washington grew
tobacco but he eventually stopped smoking and considered drunkenness a
man's worst vice. He was glad that post-Revolutionary
Virginia
Virginia society
was less likely to "force [guests] to drink and to make it an honor to
send them home drunk."[250]
Washington suffered from problems with his teeth throughout his life,
and historians have tracked his experiences in great detail.[251] He
lost his first adult tooth when he was twenty-two and had only one
left by the time that he became president.[252]
John Adams
John Adams claimed
that he lost them because he used them to crack Brazil nuts, but
modern historians suggest that mercury oxide probably contributed to
the loss, which he was given to treat illnesses such as smallpox and
malaria.[253]
Washington had several sets of false teeth made, four of them by a
dentist named John Greenwood. None of the sets were made from wood.
The set made when he became president was carved from hippopotamus and
elephant ivory, held together with gold springs.[253] Prior to these,
he had a set made with real human teeth,[254] likely of the nine teeth
that he purchased in 1784 from "several unnamed 'Negroes,' presumably
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon slaves" at less than a third of the going rate.[255]
Dental problems left Washington in constant pain, for which he took
laudanum.[256] This distress may be apparent in many of the portraits
painted while he was still in office,[256] including the one still
used on the $1 bill.[248][p]
Religion
Main article:
George Washington
George Washington and religion
For his entire life, Washington was affiliated with the established
Anglican Church of Great Britain. Following the Revolution, in the
United States
United States it was dis-established (in Southern states) and
reorganized as the Episcopal Church. Washington served as a vestryman
and as church warden for both Fairfax Parish in Alexandria and Truro
Parish.[257] These were administrative positions. As with all official
positions in
Virginia
Virginia while it had an established church, an
officeholder was required to swear that he would not speak or act in a
way that did not conform to the tenets of the Church. Numerous
historians have suggested that, theologically, Washington agreed
largely with the Deists, but he never expressed any particular Deist
beliefs which he may have had. He often used words for the deity, such
as "God" and "Providence", while avoiding using the words "Jesus" and
"Christ." In his collected works, such terms appear in an official
letter to Indians, which might have been drafted by an aide.
At the time,
Deism
Deism was a theological outlook, not an organized
denomination. It was compatible with being an Episcopalian. Historian
Gregg Frazer argues that Washington was not a deist but a "theistic
rationalist." This theological position rejected core beliefs of
Christianity, such as the divinity of Christ, the Trinity, and
original sin. Unlike the deists, the theological rationalists believed
in the efficacy of prayer to God.[258] Theologian Peter A. Lillback
argues that Washington was neither a deist nor a "theistic
rationalist" but a Christian who accepted the core beliefs of
Christianity.[259]
Washington frequently accompanied his wife to church services.
Third-hand reports say that he took communion,[260] although he is
usually characterized as never or rarely participating in the
rite.[261][262] He would regularly leave services before communion
with the other non-communicants (as was the custom of the day). He
ceased attending at all on communion Sundays after being admonished by
a rector.[263]
Washington regarded religion as a protective influence for America's
social and political order, and recognized the church's "laudable
endeavors to render men sober, honest, and good citizens, and the
obedient subjects of a lawful government."[264]
It is generally concluded that Washington was a Christian, although
the exact nature of his religious beliefs has been debated by some
historians and biographers for over two hundred years. Washington
biographer
Don Higginbotham
Don Higginbotham notes that, in such instances, people with
diametrically opposing opinions frequently base their views of
Washington's beliefs on their own beliefs.[257][265] Higginbotham
claims that Washington harbored no contempt of organized Christianity
and its clergy, and quotes him as saying: "being no bigot myself to
any mode of worship".[266] Washington, as commander of the army and as
president, was a vigorous promoter of tolerance for all religious
denominations. He believed that religion was an important support for
public order, morality, and virtue. He often attended services of
different denominations, and he suppressed anti-Catholic celebrations
in the Army.[267]
Michael Novak and Jana Novak suggest that it may have been
"Washington's intention to maintain a studied ambiguity (and personal
privacy) regarding his own deepest religious convictions, so that all
Americans, both in his own time and for all time to come, might feel
free to approach him on their own terms—and might also feel like
full members of the new republic, equal with every other."[268] They
conclude:
He was educated in the Episcopal Church, to which he always adhered; and my conviction is, that he believed in the fundamental doctrines of Christianity as usually taught in that Church, according to his understanding of them; but without a particle of intolerance, or disrespect for the faith and modes of worship adopted by Christians of other denominations.[269]
Freemasonry
Masonic Memorial
As a young man, Washington was initiated into
Freemasonry
Freemasonry in 1752 at
the age of 20.[270] He had a high regard for the Masonic Order and
often praised it, but he seldom attended lodge meetings. He was
attracted by the movement's dedication to the Enlightenment principles
of rationality, reason, and fraternalism. The American lodges did not
share the anti-clerical perspective that made the European lodges so
controversial.[271] In 1777, a convention of
Virginia
Virginia lodges
recommended Washington to be the Grand Master of the newly established
Grand Lodge
Grand Lodge of Virginia. He declined, due to his responsibility in
leading the
Continental Army
Continental Army at a critical stage. He also did not
consider it Masonically legal to serve as Grand Master because he had
never been installed as Master or Warden of a lodge.[272] In 1788,
Washington was named Master in the
Virginia
Virginia charter of Alexandria
Lodge No. 22, with his personal consent.[273]
Slavery
Main article:
George Washington
George Washington and slavery
Washington was the only prominent Founding Father to arrange in his
will for the freeing of all his slaves following his death and the
death of his wife.[274][275] He privately opposed slavery as an
institution, which he viewed as economically unsound and morally
indefensible. He believed that the divisiveness of his countrymen's
feelings about slavery was a potentially mortal threat to the unity of
the nation.[276] He never publicly challenged the institution of
slavery,[277][278] possibly because he wanted to avoid provoking a
split in the new republic over so inflammatory an issue.[279] He did
sign into law the Slave Trade Act of 1794, which limited American
involvement in the Atlantic slave trade.[280]
Washington had owned slaves since the death of his father in 1743,
when he inherited 10 slaves. (Washington was 11 at the time.) He owned
at least 36 slaves by the time of his marriage to Martha Custis in
1759, which meant that he had achieved the status of a major planter.
(Historians of the Upper South said that major planters owned 20 or
more slaves.) Martha brought at least 85 "dower slaves" to Mount
Vernon after their marriage, as she had inherited one third of her
late husband's estate. Washington bought more land using his wife's
great wealth, tripling the size of the plantation at
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon and
purchasing the additional slaves needed to work it. By 1774, he paid
taxes on 135 slaves (this figure does not include the dower slaves).
The last record of a slave purchase by him was in 1772, although he
later received some slaves in repayment of debts.[281] Washington also
used some hired staff[215] and white indentured servants; in April
1775, he offered a reward for the return of two runaway white
servants.[282]
Washington refused to allow his slaves to be sold without their
permission. This policy was economically inefficient, resulting in an
unnecessarily large work force.[283] In his will, he provided that his
slaves should be freed after the death of his wife. However, Martha
chose to free them at the end of 1800, fearing that her life was not
safe in their hands because her death would make them free.[284] Most
of the former slaves were unable to find suitable work after being
freed and lived in poverty. Part of this was due to
Virginia
Virginia passing
laws against educating blacks and restricting the rights of free
blacks.[285]
Washington sought to preserve slaves' families, although he allowed
the administration of corporal punishment by overseers, as was
customary for the time. He approved when his estate manager Anthony
Whitting whipped a slave named Charlotte[286] when Martha deemed her
to be "indolent". "Your treatment of Charlotte was very proper,"
Washington wrote in 1793, "and if she or any other of the servants
will not do their duty by fair means, or are impertinent, correction
(as the only alternative) must be administered."[287] Another of his
estate managers named Hiland (or Hyland) Crow was notorious for
brutally flogging slaves.[288] Some of his slaves absconded during the
Revolutionary War to find protection with the enemy, and Washington
did not let up in his efforts to reclaim what he saw as his property.
One internal British memo portrayed him after victory as demanding,
"with all the grossness and ferocity of a captain of banditti," that
the runaways be returned.[289]
Historical reputation and legacy
Main article: Legacy of George Washington
See also: Historical rankings of Presidents of the
United States
United States and
Cultural depictions of George Washington
The Constable-Hamilton Portrait by Gilbert Stuart
George Washington's legacy
George Washington's legacy remains among the two or three greatest in
American history, as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, hero
of the Revolution, and the first President of the United States.[q]
Congressman Henry "Light-Horse Harry" Lee, a Revolutionary War
comrade, famously eulogized Washington, "First in war—first in
peace—and first in the hearts of his countrymen".[290]
Lee's words set the standard by which Washington's overwhelming
reputation was impressed upon the American memory. Biographers hailed
him as the great exemplar of republicanism. Washington set many
precedents for the national government, and the presidency in
particular, and was called the "Father of His Country" as early as
1778.[r][8][291][292]
Washington's Birthday
Washington's Birthday is a federal holiday in
the United States.[293] In terms of personality, biographer Douglas
Southall Freeman concluded, "the great big thing stamped across that
man is character." By character, says David Hackett Fischer, "Freeman
meant integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve,
and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for
others."[294]
Washington became an international icon for liberation and
nationalism, as the leader of the first successful revolution against
a colonial empire. The Federalists made him the symbol of their party
but, for many years, the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his
influence and delayed building the Washington Monument.[295] On
January 31, 1781, he was elected a member of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences.[296]
During the
United States
United States Bicentennial year,
George Washington
George Washington was
posthumously appointed to the grade of
General
General of the Armies of the
United States
United States by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479
passed on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July
4, 1976.[98] This restored his position as the highest-ranking
military officer in U.S. history.[s]
American Revolutionary War
American Revolutionary War highlights
Washington at Monmouth
Successful siege of Boston (1775-1776) [297]
Crossed the
Delaware
Delaware and defeated
British Army
British Army at Trenton (1776) [297]
Defeated at Brandywine and Germantown by
British Army
British Army (Fall 1777)
[297]
Bitter cold Winter at
Valley Forge
Valley Forge (1777-1778) [297]
Victory over British at Monmouth (June 1778) [297]
Yorktown campaign
Yorktown campaign that ended the war (1781) [297]
Papers
Main article: The Papers of George Washington
The serious collection and publication of Washington's documentary
record began with the pioneer work of
Jared Sparks
Jared Sparks in the 1830s in
Life and Writings of
George Washington
George Washington (12 vols., 1834–1837). The
Writings of
George Washington
George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources,
1745–1799 (1931–44) is a 37 volume set edited by John C.
Fitzpatrick. It contains over 17,000 letters and documents and is
available online from the University of Virginia.[298] The definitive
letterpress edition of his writings was begun by the University of
Virginia
Virginia in 1968, and today comprises 52 published volumes, with more
to come. It contains everything written by Washington or signed by
him, together with most of his incoming letters. Part of the
collection is available online from the University of Virginia.[299]
Monuments and memorials
Main article: List of memorials to George Washington
Washington Monument, Washington, DC
Many places and entities have been named in honor of Washington. His
name became that of the nation's capital
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C. The state of
Washington is the only state to be named after a United States
president.[300] Mount Washington in New Hampshire, the tallest
mountain in the Northeast, was named soon after the American
Revolution by Colonel John Whipple.[301]
Washington, Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln
are depicted in stone at the
Mount Rushmore
Mount Rushmore Memorial. The Washington
Monument was built in his honor, one of the best-known American
landmarks. The
George Washington Masonic National Memorial
George Washington Masonic National Memorial in
Alexandria,
Virginia
Virginia was constructed between 1922 and 1932 with
voluntary contributions from all 52 local governing bodies of the
Freemasons
Freemasons in the United States.[302][303]
There have been many proposals to build a monument to Washington,
starting after victory in the Revolution. After his death, Congress
authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital, but the
decision was reversed when the Democratic-Republicans took control of
Congress in 1801. The Democratic-Republicans were dismayed that
Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party.[304]
Construction of the 554 foot memorial didn't begin until 1848. It was
completed in 1885. There are many other "Washington Monuments" in the
United States, including two well-known equestrian statues, one in
Manhattan and one in Richmond, Virginia. The first statue to show
Washington on horseback was dedicated in 1856 and is located in
Manhattan's Union Square.[305]
The world's busiest bridge, the
George Washington
George Washington Bridge, is named in
his honor. Several naval vessels are named in Washington's honor,
including the USS George Washington.[306]
Gallery
Bailly's George Washington, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
The first
Washington Monument
_(cropped).jpg/500px-Washington_October_2016-6_(cropped)_(cropped).jpg)
Washington Monument in Baltimore, Maryland
Jean-Antoine Houdon's statue, State Capitol in Virginia
Lieutenant
General
General George Washington, Washington Circle, Washington,
D.C.
George Washington's likeness under construction on Mount Rushmore
Postage and currency
See also: U.S. presidents on U.S. postage stamps § George
Washington, and History of
Virginia
Virginia on stamps
George Washington
George Washington appears on contemporary U.S. currency, including the
one-dollar bill and the quarter-dollar coin (the Washington quarter).
Washington and
Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin appeared on the nation's first
postage stamps in 1847. Since that time, Washington has appeared on
many postage issues, more than all other presidents combined.[307]
Washington's victory over Cornwallis at the Battle of Yorktown was
commemorated with a two-cent stamp on the battle's 150th anniversary
on October 19, 1931.[308] The 150th anniversary of the signing of the
Constitution with
George Washington
George Washington as presiding officer was
celebrated with a three-cent issue on September 17, 1937, adapted from
the painting by Julius Brutus Stearns.[309] Washington's presidential
inauguration at
Federal Hall
Federal Hall in
New York City
New York City was celebrated on its
150th anniversary on April 30, 1939.[310]
Gallery
Selected Issues
Washington Issue of 1862
Washington-Franklin Issue of 1917
Washington at Valley Forge Issue of 1928
Washington as President of the Constitutional Convention Issue of 1937
Selected currency
Quarter Dollar
George Washington Presidential One Dollar Coin
George Washington
George Washington on the
1928 Dollar Bill
Cherry tree
See also:
Parson Weems
Parson Weems § The cherry-tree anecdote
Perhaps the best-known story about Washington's childhood is that he
chopped down his father's favorite cherry tree and admitted the deed
when questioned: "I can't tell a lie, Pa." The anecdote was first
reported by biographer Parson Weems, who interviewed people after
Washington's death who knew him as a child over a half-century
earlier. The Weems text was very widely reprinted throughout the 19th
century, for example in McGuffey Readers. Adults wanted children to
learn moral lessons from history, especially as taught by example from
the lives of great national heroes like Washington. After 1890
historians insisted on scientific research methods to validate every
statement, and there was no documentation for this anecdote apart from
Weems' report that he learned it from one of the neighbors who knew
the young Washington. Joseph Rodman claimed in 1904 that Weems
plagiarized other Washington tales from published fiction set in
England, but no one has found an alternative source for the cherry
tree story.[311][312]
Austin Washington, a descendant of George Washington, maintains that
it is unlikely that Parson Weems, a man of the clergy, would write an
account about truth and honesty and then lie about such a story. He
further maintains that, if Weems was making up a story, he would have
more dramatically depicted the young Washington chopping down the
cherry tree, not merely "barking it" (i.e., removing some of the
bark), as Weems never claimed that the tree was chopped down. There
has been much conjecture and ad hominem attacks from some historians
about Weems and his story, but none have proven or disproven the
story.[313]
Personal property auction record
George Washington's personal annotated copy of the "Acts Passed at a
Congress of the
United States
United States of America" from 1789 includes the
Constitution of the
United States
United States and a draft of the Bill of Rights.
It was sold on June 22, 2012, at
Christie's
Christie's for $9,826,500 (with fees
added to the final cost) to The
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. This
was the record for a document sold at auction.[314]
See also
United States
United States portal
American Revolutionary War
American Revolutionary War portal
Virginia
Virginia portal
Biography portal
Government of the
United States
United States portal
Military of the
United States
United States portal
Culper Ring, the spy ring organized by
Benjamin Tallmadge
Benjamin Tallmadge and
supervised by Washington
American gentry
Conotocaurious (Town Destroyer), a nickname given to Washington by
Iroquois
Iroquois Native Americans
Electoral history of George Washington
List of federal judges appointed by George Washington
List of notable Freemasons
List of Presidents of the United States, sortable by previous
experience
List of
United States
United States militia units in the American Revolutionary War
Where's George?, a website that tracks the circulation of American
paper money
Book: George Washington
Book: Presidents of the
United States
United States (1789–1860)
Notes
^ March 4 is the official start of the first presidential term. April
6 is when Congress counted the votes of the Electoral College and
certified a president. April 30 is when Washington was sworn in.
^ Old style: February 11, 1731
^ a b Contemporaneous records used the
Julian calendar
Julian calendar and the
Annunciation Style of enumerating years, recording his birth as
February 11, 1731. The provisions of the British Calendar (New Style)
Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating
method to the
Gregorian calendar
Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January
1 (it had been March 25). These changes resulted in dates being moved
forward 11 days, and an advance of one year for those between January
1 and March 25. For a further explanation, see Old Style and New Style
dates.[2]
^ Washington received his license through the college, whose charter
gave it the authority to appoint
Virginia
Virginia county surveyors. There is
no evidence that he actually attended classes there.[34] This
lucrative appointment was due to his connection to the prominent
Fairfax family through his brother Lawrence.
^ Also referred to as the
Seven Years' War
Seven Years' War and The French War
^ Ellis and Ferling, for example, do not discuss this stance in
reference to Washington's
French and Indian War
French and Indian War service, and cast it
almost exclusively in terms of his negative experiences dealing with
the
Continental Congress
Continental Congress during the Revolution. See Ellis 2004,
p. 218; Ferling 2009, pp. 32–33, 200, 258–72, 316. Don
Higginbotham places Washington's first formal advocacy of a strong
central government in 1783. Higginbotham 2002, p. 37.
^ Washington may not have been able to admit to his own sterility
while privately he grieved over not having his own children. Bumgarner
1994, pp. 1–8
^ The flag depicted was not adopted until 1777, [116]
^ The term comes from the Roman strategy used by
General
General Fabius
against Hannibal's invasion in the Second Punic War.
^ Ferling and Ellis argue that Washington favored Fabian tactics, and
Higginbotham denies it. Ferling 2010, pp. 212, 264; Ellis 2004,
p. 11; Higginbotham 1971, p. 211.
^ Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress called its presiding
officer "
President of the United States
President of the United States in Congress Assembled". The
position had no executive powers, but the similarity of titles has
confused some into thinking that there were other presidents before
Washington.[166]
^ The system in place at the time dictated that each elector cast two
votes, with the winner becoming president and the runner-up vice
president. Every elector in the elections of 1789 and 1792 cast one of
his votes for Washington; thus, it may be said that he was elected
president unanimously.
James Monroe
James Monroe was re-elected unopposed in 1820,
but a "faithless elector" cast a single vote for John Quincy Adams,
depriving him of unanimous election.
^ The
Coinage Act of 1792
Coinage Act of 1792 sets the value of $1 USD equal to 24.1g of
silver. With the price of silver at $15.95/oz as of June 13, 2015, the
value of 25,000 in silver dollars in 1792 value (24.1g/$1) is
$338,750.
^ Washington wrote to James Madison: ""As the first of everything in
our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly
wished on my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles."
Washington to James Madison, May 5, 1789, cited by Unger, 2013, p. 76.
^ At least three modern medical authors (Wallenborn 1997, Shapiro
1975, Scheidemandel 1976) concluded that Washington most probably died
from acute bacterial epiglottitis complicated by the administered
treatments. These treatments included multiple doses of calomel (a
cathartic or purgative), and extensive bloodletting (with at least
2.365 total liters of blood being taken, which is slightly less than
half of a normal adult's blood volume).
See Vadakan 2005, Footnotes for Shapiro and Scheidemandel references. Vadakan's article also directly quotes Doctors Craik and Dick's account (as published in the Times of Alexandria newspaper) of their treatment of Washington during his fatal illness.
^ The Smithsonian Institution states in "The Portrait—George
Washington: A National Treasure" that Stuart admired the sculpture of
Washington by French artist Jean-Antoine Houdon, probably because it
was based on a life mask and therefore extremely accurate. Stuart
explained, "When I painted him, he had just had a set of false teeth
inserted, which accounts for the constrained expression so noticeable
about the mouth and lower part of the face. Houdon's bust does not
suffer from this defect. I wanted him as he looked at that time."
Stuart preferred the Athenaeum pose, except for the gaze, and used the
same pose for the Lansdowne painting.[256]
^ Historians
Jay A. Parry
Jay A. Parry and Andrew M. Allison declare that
Washington "was the dominant personality in three of the most critical
events in that founding: the Revolutionary War, the Constitutional
Convention, and the first national administration. Had he not served
as America's leader in those three events, all three likely would have
failed. And America as we know it today would not exist." Parry, 1991,
p. xi.
^ The earliest known image in which Washington is identified as the
Father of His Country is in the frontispiece of a 1779 German-language
almanac, with calculations by David Rittenhouse and published by
Francis Bailey in Lancaster County Pennsylvania. Der Gantz Neue
Nord-Americanishe Calendar has Fame appearing with an image of
Washington holding a trumpet to her lips, from which come the words
"Der Landes Vater" (translated as "the father of the country" or "the
father of the land").
^ In Bell 2005, William Gardner Bell states that Washington was
recalled back into military service from his retirement in 1798, and
"Congress passed legislation that would have made him
General
General of the
Armies of the United States, but his services were not required in the
field and the appointment was not made until the Bicentennial in 1976,
when it was bestowed posthumously as a commemorative honor." How many
U.S. Army five-star generals have there been and who were they? states
that with Public Law 94-479, President Ford specified that Washington
would "rank first among all officers of the Army, past and present.
"
General
General of the Armies of the United States" is associated with only
two people... one being Washington and the other being John J.
Pershing.
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U.S. Army Center of Military History (U.S. Government). Retrieved
September 7, 2012.
Online sources
"VI. Religion and the Federal Government". Religion and the Founding
of the American Republic.
Library of Congress
Library of Congress Exhibition. Retrieved
November 13, 2011.
"The President's House: Freedom and Slavery in the Making of a New
Nation". Independence National Historical Park. National Park Service.
Retrieved January 3, 2011.
"George Washington's Professional Surveys". U.S. National Archives.
2016. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
Library of Congress
Library of Congress (1905). "Acceptance of Appointment by General
Washington, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789
91–92". Continental Congress. Missing or empty url= (help)
Explore PA (2011). "George Washington,
Covenanter
Covenanter squatters Historical
Marker". Explore PA. WITF. Retrieved January 7, 2014.
Bruns, Roger A. (1986). "Constitution of the United States". The
Charters of Freedom. National Archives and Records Administration.
Retrieved January 3, 2011.
Byron, Lord George (2001). "Ode to Napoleon Buonoparte". Retrieved May
20, 2014.
Fitzpatrick, John (ed) (2016). "Writings of George Washington –
Online Fitzpatrick edition". University of
Virginia
Virginia / Hathi Trust.
Retrieved March 7, 2011. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list
(link)
Freneau, Philip (1903). Fred Lewis Pattee, ed. "The Poems of Philip
Freneau, Volume II (of III)". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved September
6, 2014.
McMillan, Joseph (2006). "The Arms of George Washington". Archived
from the original on August 6, 2016. Retrieved June 2, 2016.
"Surveying".
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. 2016. Retrieved June
13, 2016.
Twohig, Dorothy (October 1994). "'That Species of Property':
Washington's Role in the Controversy Over Slavery". The Papers of
George Washington. University of Virginia. Archived from the original
on April 13, 2005. Retrieved November 14, 2011.
Jensen, Richard (2002). "Military History of the American Revolution".
Jensen's Web Guides. University of Illinois at Chicago. Retrieved
January 18, 2011.
Knott, Stephen (2005). "Life Before the Presidency". Miller Center of
Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on
November 28, 2011. Retrieved November 12, 2011.
Wallenborn, White McKenzie, M.D. (1999). "George Washington's Terminal
Illness: A Modern Medical Analysis of the Last Illness and Death of
George Washington". The Papers of George Washington. University of
Virginia.
University of
Virginia
Virginia (2008). "Bible Record for Washington Family".
The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia. Archived from
the original on October 5, 2013. Retrieved January 26, 2008.
Washington, George (1799). "Letter to Continental Army, November 2,
1783, Farewell Orders; Letter to Henry Knox, November 2, 1783". George
Washington Papers, 1741–1799: Series 3b Varick Transcripts. Library
of Congress. Archived from the original on August 21, 2013. Retrieved
November 13, 2011.
Wood, Gordon (December 16, 2004). "The Man Who Would Not Be King". The
New Republic. Retrieved August 4, 2006 – via powells.com.
Pogue, Dennis J. (January 2004). Shad, Wheat, and Rye (Whiskey):
George Washington, Entrepreneur (PDF). The Society for Historical
Archaeology Annual Meeting. St. Louis, Missouri:
Mount Vernon
Mount Vernon Ladies'
Association. pp. 2–10. Archived from the original (PDF) on
December 24, 2011.
Carroll, Rebecca (July 2, 2008). "George Washington's Boyhood Home
Found". nationalgeographic.com. National Geographic News. Retrieved
March 28, 2018.
Primary sources
Lengel, Edward G., ed. (2011). "The Papers of George Washington:
Digital Edition". University of Virginia. Retrieved March 7,
2011.
'Writings of
George Washington
George Washington edited by John C. Fitzpatrick, et al.
(39 vol. 1931)
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