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Contents
1 History
1.1 Origin and development 1.2 Nazism and the decline of eugenics 1.3 Modern resurgence of interest
2 Meanings and types
2.1 Implementation methods
3 Arguments
3.1 Efficacy 3.2 Loss of genetic diversity 3.3 Ethics
3.3.1 Opposition 3.3.2 Support
4 See also 5 References 6 External links
History[edit]
Francis Galton
Francis Galton was an early eugenicist, coining the term itself and
popularizing the collocation of the words "nature and nurture".[11]
Main article: History of eugenics
Origin and development[edit]
The concept of positive eugenics to produce better human beings has
existed at least since
Plato
Plato suggested selective mating to produce a
guardian class.[12]
The first formal negative eugenics, that is a legal provision against
birth of inferior human beings, was promulgated in Western European
culture by the Christian
Council of Agde in 506, which forbade
marriage between cousins.[13]
This idea was also promoted by William Goodell (1829–1894) who
advocated the castration and spaying of the insane.[14][15]
G. K. Chesterton, an opponent of eugenics, in 1905, by photographer Alvin Langdon Coburn
The idea of a modern project of improving the human population through
a statistical understanding of heredity used to encourage good
breeding was originally developed by
Francis Galton
Francis Galton and, initially,
was closely linked to Darwinism and his theory of natural
selection.[16] Galton had read his half-cousin Charles Darwin's theory
of evolution, which sought to explain the development of plant and
animal species, and desired to apply it to humans. Based on his
biographical studies, Galton believed that desirable human qualities
were hereditary traits, though Darwin strongly disagreed with this
elaboration of his theory.[17] In 1883, one year after Darwin's death,
Galton gave his research a name: eugenics.[18] With the introduction
of genetics, eugenics became associated with genetic determinism, the
belief that human character is entirely or in the majority caused by
genes, unaffected by education or living conditions. Many of the early
geneticists were not Darwinians, and evolution theory was not needed
for eugenics policies based on genetic determinism.[16] Throughout its
recent history, eugenics has remained controversial.[19]
Eugenics
Eugenics became an academic discipline at many colleges and
universities and received funding from many sources.[20] Organizations
were formed to win public support and sway opinion towards responsible
eugenic values in parenthood, including the British
Eugenics
Eugenics Education
Society of 1907 and the American
Eugenics
Eugenics Society of 1921. Both sought
support from leading clergymen and modified their message to meet
religious ideals.[21] In 1909 the Anglican clergymen William Inge and
James Peile both wrote for the British
Eugenics
Eugenics Education Society.
Inge was an invited speaker at the 1921 International Eugenics
Conference, which was also endorsed by the Roman Catholic Archbishop
of New York Patrick Joseph Hayes.[21]
Three International
Eugenics
Eugenics Conferences presented a global venue for
eugenists with meetings in 1912 in London, and in 1921 and 1932 in New
York City. Eugenic policies were first implemented in the early 1900s
in the United States.[22] It also took root in France, Germany, and
Great Britain.[23] Later, in the 1920s and 1930s, the eugenic policy
of sterilizing certain mental patients was implemented in other
countries including Belgium,[24] Brazil,[25] Canada,[26] Japan and
Sweden.
In addition to being practiced in a number of countries, eugenics was
internationally organized through the International Federation of
Eugenics
Eugenics Organizations.[27] Its scientific aspects were carried on
through research bodies such as the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of
Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics,[28] the Cold Spring
Harbour Carnegie Institution for Experimental Evolution,[29] and the
Eugenics
Eugenics Record Office.[30] Politically, the movement advocated
measures such as sterilization laws.[31] In its moral dimension,
eugenics rejected the doctrine that all human beings are born equal
and redefined moral worth purely in terms of genetic fitness.[32] Its
racist elements included pursuit of a pure "Nordic race" or "Aryan"
genetic pool and the eventual elimination of "unfit" races.[33][34]
Early critics of the philosophy of eugenics included the American
sociologist Lester Frank Ward,[35] the English writer G. K.
Chesterton, the German-American anthropologist Franz Boas, who argued
that advocates of eugenics greatly over-estimate the influence of
biology,[36] and Scottish tuberculosis pioneer and author Halliday
Sutherland. Ward's 1913 article "Eugenics, Euthenics, and Eudemics",
Chesterton's 1917 book
Eugenics
Eugenics and Other Evils, and Boas' 1916
article "Eugenics" (published in The Scientific Monthly) were all
harshly critical of the rapidly growing movement. Sutherland
identified eugenists as a major obstacle to the eradication and cure
of tuberculosis in his 1917 address "Consumption: Its Cause and
Cure",[37] and criticism of eugenists and Neo-Malthusians in his 1921
book Birth Control led to a writ for libel from the eugenist Marie
Stopes. Several biologists were also antagonistic to the eugenics
movement, including Lancelot Hogben.[38] Other biologists such as J.
B. S. Haldane and R. A. Fisher expressed skepticism in the belief that
sterilization of "defectives" would lead to the disappearance of
undesirable genetic traits.[39]
Among institutions, the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church was an opponent of
state-enforced sterilizations.[40] Attempts by the
Eugenics
Eugenics Education
Society to persuade the British government to legalize voluntary
sterilization were opposed by Catholics and by the Labour Party.[41]
The American
Eugenics
Eugenics Society initially gained some Catholic
supporters, but Catholic support declined following the 1930 papal
encyclical Casti connubii.[21] In this,
Pope Pius XI
Pope Pius XI explicitly
condemned sterilization laws: "Public magistrates have no direct power
over the bodies of their subjects; therefore, where no crime has taken
place and there is no cause present for grave punishment, they can
never directly harm, or tamper with the integrity of the body, either
for the reasons of eugenics or for any other reason."[42]
As a social movement, eugenics reached its greatest popularity in the
early decades of the 20th century, when it was practiced around the
world and promoted by governments, institutions, and influential
individuals. Many countries enacted[43] various eugenics policies,
including: genetic screenings, birth control, promoting differential
birth rates, marriage restrictions, segregation (both racial
segregation and sequestering the mentally ill), compulsory
sterilization, forced abortions or forced pregnancies, ultimately
culminating in genocide.
Nazism and the decline of eugenics[edit]
Hartheim Euthanasia Centre
Hartheim Euthanasia Centre in 2005
A
Lebensborn
Lebensborn birth house in Nazi Germany. Created with the intention
of raising the birth rate of "Aryan" children from the extramarital
relations of "racially pure and healthy" parents.
Main article: Nazi eugenics
The scientific reputation of eugenics started to decline in the 1930s,
a time when
Ernst Rüdin
Ernst Rüdin used eugenics as a justification for the
racial policies of Nazi Germany.
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler had praised and
incorporated eugenic ideas in
Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf in 1925 and emulated eugenic
legislation for the sterilization of "defectives" that had been
pioneered in the United States once he took power.[44] Some common
early 20th century eugenics methods involved identifying and
classifying individuals and their families, including the poor,
mentally ill, blind, deaf, developmentally disabled, promiscuous
women, homosexuals, and racial groups (such as the Roma and Jews in
Nazi Germany) as "degenerate" or "unfit", and therefore led to
segregation, institutionalization, sterilization, euthanasia, and even
mass murder.[45] The Nazi practice of euthanasia was carried out on
hospital patients in the
Aktion T4
Aktion T4 centers such as Hartheim Castle.
By the end of World War II, many discriminatory eugenics laws were
abandoned, having become associated with Nazi Germany.[45][46] H. G.
Wells, who had called for "the sterilization of failures" in 1904,[47]
stated in his 1940 book The Rights of Man: Or What are we fighting
for? that among the human rights, which he believed should be
available to all people, was "a prohibition on mutilation,
sterilization, torture, and any bodily punishment".[48] After World
War II, the practice of "imposing measures intended to prevent births
within [a national, ethnical, racial or religious] group" fell within
the definition of the new international crime of genocide, set out in
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide.[49] The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
also proclaims "the prohibition of eugenic practices, in particular
those aiming at selection of persons".[50] In spite of the decline in
discriminatory eugenics laws, some government mandated sterilizations
continued into the 21st century. During the ten years President
Alberto Fujimori
Alberto Fujimori led Peru from 1990 to 2000, 2,000 persons were
allegedly involuntarily sterilized.[51]
China
China maintained its one-child
policy until 2015 as well as a suite of other eugenics based
legislation to reduce population size and manage fertility rates of
different populations.[52][53][54] In 2007 the
United Nations
United Nations reported
coercive sterilizations and hysterectomies in Uzbekistan.[55] During
the years 2005 to 2013, nearly one-third of the 144 California prison
inmates who were sterilized did not give lawful consent to the
operation.[56]
Modern resurgence of interest[edit]
Developments in genetic, genomic, and reproductive technologies at the
end of the 20th century are raising numerous questions regarding the
ethical status of eugenics, effectively creating a resurgence of
interest in the subject. Some, such as
UC Berkeley
UC Berkeley sociologist Troy
Duster, claim that modern genetics is a back door to eugenics.[57]
This view is shared by White House Assistant Director for Forensic
Sciences, Tania Simoncelli, who stated in a 2003 publication by the
Population and Development Program at
Hampshire College
Hampshire College that advances
in pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) are moving society to a
"new era of eugenics", and that, unlike the Nazi eugenics, modern
eugenics is consumer driven and market based, "where children are
increasingly regarded as made-to-order consumer products".[58] In a
2006 newspaper article,
Richard Dawkins
Richard Dawkins said that discussion regarding
eugenics was inhibited by the shadow of Nazi misuse, to the extent
that some scientists would not admit that breeding humans for certain
abilities is at all possible. He believes that it is not physically
different from breeding domestic animals for traits such as speed or
herding skill. Dawkins felt that enough time had elapsed to at least
ask just what the ethical differences were between breeding for
ability versus training athletes or forcing children to take music
lessons, though he could think of persuasive reasons to draw the
distinction.[59]
Lee Kuan Yew, the
Founding Father
Founding Father of Singapore, started promoting
eugenics as early as 1983.[60][61]
In October 2015, the United Nations' International
Bioethics Committee
wrote that the ethical problems of human genetic engineering should
not be confused with the ethical problems of the 20th century eugenics
movements. However, it is still problematic because it challenges the
idea of human equality and opens up new forms of discrimination and
stigmatization for those who do not want, or cannot afford, the
technology.[62]
Transhumanism
Transhumanism is often associated with eugenics, although most
transhumanists holding similar views nonetheless distance themselves
from the term "eugenics" (preferring "germinal choice" or
"reprogenetics")[63] to avoid having their position confused with the
discredited theories and practices of early-20th-century eugenic
movements.
Prenatal screening can be considered a form of contemporary eugenics
because it may lead to preventing the birth of a child with
undesirable traits.[64]
Meanings and types[edit]
Karl Pearson
Karl Pearson (1912)
The term eugenics and its modern field of study were first formulated
by
Francis Galton
Francis Galton in 1883,[65] drawing on the recent work of his
half-cousin Charles Darwin.[66][67] Galton published his observations
and conclusions in his book Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its
Development.
The origins of the concept began with certain interpretations of
Mendelian inheritance
Mendelian inheritance and the theories of August Weismann.[68] The
word eugenics is derived from the Greek word eu ("good" or "well") and
the suffix -genēs ("born"), and was coined by Galton in 1883 to
replace the word "stirpiculture", which he had used previously but
which had come to be mocked due to its perceived sexual overtones.[69]
Galton defined eugenics as "the study of all agencies under human
control which can improve or impair the racial quality of future
generations".[70]
Historically, the term eugenics has referred to everything from
prenatal care for mothers to forced sterilization and euthanasia.[71]
To population geneticists, the term has included the avoidance of
inbreeding without altering allele frequencies; for example, J. B. S.
Haldane wrote that "the motor bus, by breaking up inbred village
communities, was a powerful eugenic agent."[72] Debate as to what
exactly counts as eugenics continues today.[73]
Edwin Black, journalist and author of War Against the Weak, claims
eugenics is often deemed a pseudoscience because what is defined as a
genetic improvement of a desired trait is often deemed a cultural
choice rather than a matter that can be determined through objective
scientific inquiry.[74] The most disputed aspect of eugenics has been
the definition of "improvement" of the human gene pool, such as what
is a beneficial characteristic and what is a defect. Historically,
this aspect of eugenics was tainted with scientific racism and
pseudoscience.[75][76][77]
Early eugenists were mostly concerned with factors of perceived
intelligence that often correlated strongly with social class. Some of
these early eugenists include
Karl Pearson
Karl Pearson and Walter Weldon, who
worked on this at the University College London.[17]
Eugenics
Eugenics also had a place in medicine. In his lecture "Darwinism,
Medical Progress and Eugenics",
Karl Pearson
Karl Pearson said that everything
concerning eugenics fell into the field of medicine. He basically
placed the two words as equivalents. He was supported in part by the
fact that Francis Galton, the father of eugenics, also had medical
training.[78]
Eugenic policies have been conceptually divided into two
categories.[71] Positive eugenics is aimed at encouraging reproduction
among the genetically advantaged; for example, the reproduction of the
intelligent, the healthy, and the successful. Possible approaches
include financial and political stimuli, targeted demographic
analyses, in vitro fertilization, egg transplants, and cloning.[79]
The movie
Gattaca
Gattaca provides a fictional example of a dystopian society
that uses eugenics to decided what you are capable of and your place
in the world. Negative eugenics aimed to eliminate, through
sterilization or segregation, those deemed physically, mentally, or
morally "undesirable". This includes abortions, sterilization, and
other methods of family planning.[79] Both positive and negative
eugenics can be coercive; abortion for fit women, for example, was
illegal in Nazi Germany.[80]
Jon Entine
Jon Entine claims that eugenics simply means "good genes" and using it
as synonym for genocide is an "all-too-common distortion of the social
history of genetics policy in the United States." According to Entine,
eugenics developed out of the
Progressive Era
Progressive Era and not "Hitler's
twisted Final Solution".[81]
Implementation methods[edit]
According to Richard Lynn, eugenics may be divided into two main
categories based on the ways in which the methods of eugenics can be
applied.[82]
Classical eugenics
Negative eugenics by provision of information and services, i.e. reduction of unplanned pregnancies and births.[83]
Advocacy for sexual abstinence.[84]
Sex education
Sex education in schools.[85]
School-based clinics.[86]
Promoting the use of contraception.[87]
Emergency contraception.[88]
Research for better contraceptives.[89]
Voluntary sterilization.[90]
Abortion.[91]
Negative eugenics by incentives, coercion and compulsion.[92]
Incentives for sterilization.[93]
The Denver Dollar-a-day program, i.e. paying teenage mothers for not
becoming pregnant again.[94]
Incentives for women on welfare to use contraceptions.[95]
Payments for sterilization in developing countries.[96]
Curtailment of benefits to welfare mothers.[97]
Compulsory sterilization
Compulsory sterilization of the "mentally retarded".[98]
Compulsory sterilization
Compulsory sterilization of female criminals.[99]
Compulsory sterilization
Compulsory sterilization of male criminals.[100]
Licences for parenthood.[101][102][103] Positive eugenics.[104]
Financial incentives to have children.[105] Selective incentives for childbearing.[106] Taxation of the childless.[107] Ethical obligations of the elite.[108] Eugenic immigration.[109]
New eugenics
Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination by donor.[110][111]
Egg donation.[112]
Prenatal diagnosis of genetic disorders and pregnancy terminations of
defective fetuses.[113]
Embryo selection.[114]
Genetic engineering.[115]
Gene
Gene therapy.[116]
Cloning.[117]
Arguments[edit]
Efficacy[edit]
The first major challenge to conventional eugenics based upon genetic
inheritance was made in 1915 by Thomas Hunt Morgan. He demonstrated
the event of genetic mutation occurring outside of inheritance
involving the discovery of the hatching of a fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster) with white eyes from a family with red-eyes.[118] Morgan
claimed that this demonstrated that major genetic changes occurred
outside of inheritance and that the concept of eugenics based upon
genetic inheritance was not completely scientifically accurate.[118]
Additionally, Morgan criticized the view that subjective traits, such
as intelligence and criminality, were caused by heredity because he
believed that the definitions of these traits varied and that accurate
work in genetics could only be done when the traits being studied were
accurately defined.[119] Despite Morgan's public rejection of
eugenics, much of his genetic research was absorbed by
eugenics.[120][121]
The heterozygote test is used for the early detection of recessive
hereditary diseases, allowing for couples to determine if they are at
risk of passing genetic defects to a future child.[122] The goal of
the test is to estimate the likelihood of passing the hereditary
disease to future descendants.[122]
Recessive traits can be severely reduced, but never eliminated unless
the complete genetic makeup of all members of the pool was known, as
aforementioned. As only very few undesirable traits, such as
Huntington's disease, are dominant, it could be argued[by whom?] from
certain perspectives that the practicality of "eliminating" traits is
quite low.[citation needed]
There are examples of eugenic acts that managed to lower the
prevalence of recessive diseases, although not influencing the
prevalence of heterozygote carriers of those diseases. The elevated
prevalence of certain genetically transmitted diseases among the
Ashkenazi Jewish population (Tay–Sachs, cystic fibrosis, Canavan's
disease, and Gaucher's disease), has been decreased in current
populations by the application of genetic screening.[123]
Pleiotropy
Pleiotropy occurs when one gene influences multiple, seemingly
unrelated phenotypic traits, an example being phenylketonuria, which
is a human disease that affects multiple systems but is caused by one
gene defect.[124] Andrzej Pękalski, from the University of Wrocław,
argues that eugenics can cause harmful loss of genetic diversity if a
eugenics program selects a pleiotropic gene that could possibly be
associated with a positive trait. Pekalski uses the example of a
coercive government eugenics program that prohibits people with myopia
from breeding but has the unintended consequence of also selecting
against high intelligence since the two go together.[125]
Loss of genetic diversity[edit]
Eugenic policies could also lead to loss of genetic diversity, in
which case a culturally accepted "improvement" of the gene pool could
very likely—as evidenced in numerous instances in isolated island
populations —result in extinction due to increased vulnerability to
disease, reduced ability to adapt to environmental change, and other
factors both known and unknown. A long-term, species-wide eugenics
plan might lead to a scenario similar to this because the elimination
of traits deemed undesirable would reduce genetic diversity by
definition.[126]
Edward M. Miller claims that, in any one generation, any realistic
program should make only minor changes in a fraction of the gene pool,
giving plenty of time to reverse direction if unintended consequences
emerge, reducing the likelihood of the elimination of desirable
genes.[127] Miller also argues that any appreciable reduction in
diversity is so far in the future that little concern is needed for
now.[127]
While the science of genetics has increasingly provided means by which
certain characteristics and conditions can be identified and
understood, given the complexity of human genetics, culture, and
psychology, at this point no agreed objective means of determining
which traits might be ultimately desirable or undesirable. Some
diseases such as sickle-cell disease and cystic fibrosis respectively
confer immunity to malaria and resistance to cholera when a single
copy of the recessive allele is contained within the genotype of the
individual. Reducing the instance of sickle-cell disease genes in
Africa where malaria is a common and deadly disease could indeed have
extremely negative net consequences.
However, some genetic diseases cause people to consider some elements
of eugenics.
Ethics[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2015)
Societal and political consequences of eugenics call for a place in the discussion on the ethics behind the eugenics movement.[128] Many of the ethical concerns regarding eugenics arise from its controversial past, prompting a discussion on what place, if any, it should have in the future. Advances in science have changed eugenics. In the past, eugenics had more to do with sterilization and enforced reproduction laws.[129] Now, in the age of a progressively mapped genome, embryos can be tested for susceptibility to disease, gender, and genetic defects, and alternative methods of reproduction such as in vitro fertilization are becoming more common.[130] Therefore, eugenics is no longer ex post facto regulation of the living but instead preemptive action on the unborn.[131] With this change, however, there are ethical concerns which lack adequate attention, and which must be addressed before eugenic policies can be properly implemented in the future. Sterilized individuals, for example, could volunteer for the procedure, albeit under incentive or duress, or at least voice their opinion. The unborn fetus on which these new eugenic procedures are performed cannot speak out, as the fetus lacks the voice to consent or to express his or her opinion.[132] Philosophers disagree about the proper framework for reasoning about such actions, which change the very identity and existence of future persons.[133] Opposition[edit]
In the decades after World War II, the term "eugenics" had taken on a
negative connotation and became increasingly unpopular within academic
science. Many organizations and journals that had their origins in the
eugenics movement began to distance themselves from the philosophy, as
when
Eugenics
Eugenics Quarterly became Social
Biology
Biology in 1969.
A common criticism of eugenics is that "it inevitably leads to
measures that are unethical".[134] Some fear future "eugenics wars" as
the worst-case scenario: the return of coercive state-sponsored
genetic discrimination and human rights violations such as compulsory
sterilization of persons with genetic defects, the killing of the
institutionalized and, specifically, segregation and genocide of races
perceived as inferior.[135] Health law professor
George Annas
George Annas and
technology law professor
Lori Andrews are prominent advocates of the
position that the use of these technologies could lead to such
human-posthuman caste warfare.[136][137]
In his 2003 book Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age,
environmental ethicist
Bill McKibben
Bill McKibben argued at length against germinal
choice technology and other advanced biotechnological strategies for
human enhancement. He writes that it would be morally wrong for humans
to tamper with fundamental aspects of themselves (or their children)
in an attempt to overcome universal human limitations, such as
vulnerability to aging, maximum life span and biological constraints
on physical and cognitive ability. Attempts to "improve" themselves
through such manipulation would remove limitations that provide a
necessary context for the experience of meaningful human choice. He
claims that human lives would no longer seem meaningful in a world
where such limitations could be overcome with technology. Even the
goal of using germinal choice technology for clearly therapeutic
purposes should be relinquished, since it would inevitably produce
temptations to tamper with such things as cognitive capacities. He
argues that it is possible for societies to benefit from renouncing
particular technologies, using as examples Ming China, Tokugawa Japan
and the contemporary Amish.[138]
Support[edit]
Some, for example
Nathaniel C. Comfort from Johns Hopkins University,
claim that the change from state-led reproductive-genetic
decision-making to individual choice has moderated the worst abuses of
eugenics by transferring the decision-making from the state to the
patient and their family.[139] Comfort suggests that "the eugenic
impulse drives us to eliminate disease, live longer and healthier,
with greater intelligence, and a better adjustment to the conditions
of society; and the health benefits, the intellectual thrill and the
profits of genetic bio-medicine are too great for us to do
otherwise."[140] Others, such as bioethicist Stephen Wilkinson of
Keele University
Keele University and Honorary Research Fellow Eve Garrard at the
University of Manchester, claim that some aspects of modern genetics
can be classified as eugenics, but that this classification does not
inherently make modern genetics immoral. In a co-authored publication
by Keele University, they stated that "[e]ugenics doesn't seem always
to be immoral, and so the fact that PGD, and other forms of selective
reproduction, might sometimes technically be eugenic, isn't sufficient
to show that they're wrong."[141]
In their book published in 2000, From Chance to Choice:
Genetics
Genetics and
Justice, bioethicists Allen Buchanan, Dan Brock, Norman Daniels and
Daniel Wikler argued that liberal societies have an obligation to
encourage as wide an adoption of eugenic enhancement technologies as
possible (so long as such policies do not infringe on individuals'
reproductive rights or exert undue pressures on prospective parents to
use these technologies) in order to maximize public health and
minimize the inequalities that may result from both natural genetic
endowments and unequal access to genetic enhancements.[142]
Original position, a hypothetical situation developed by American
philosopher John Rawls, has been used as an argument for negative
eugenics.[143][144]
See also[edit]
Ableism
Biological determinism
Culling
Directed evolution (transhumanism)
Dor Yeshorim
Eugenics
Eugenics in Mexico
Eugenics
Eugenics in the United States
Genetic determinism
Genetic discrimination
Genetic enhancement
Human enhancement
In vitro embryo selection (preimplantation genetic diagnosis)
New eugenics
Life unworthy of life
Mendelian traits in humans
Prevention of rare diseases
Sterilization
Social Darwinism
Somatotype and constitutional psychology
References[edit] Notes
^ Currell, Susan; Cogdell, Christina (2006). Popular Eugenics:
National Efficiency and American Mass Culture in The 1930s. Athens,
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^ "εὐγενής". Greek Word Study Tool. Medford, Massachusetts:
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^ "γένος". Greek Word Study Tool. 2009. Retrieved 19 October
2017.
^ "Eugenics". Unified Medical Language System (Psychological Index
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^ Galton, Francis (July 1904). "Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and
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Eugenics
Eugenics is
the science which deals with all influences that improve the inborn
qualities of a race; also with those that develop them to the utmost
advantage.
^ Osborn, Frederick (June 1937). "Development of a Eugenic
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^ Hansen, Randall; King, Desmond (1 January 2001). "Eugenic Ideas,
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^ "Sterilization of Unfit Advocated – Feeble-minded Increasing at
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Canada
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^ Bashford, Alison; Levine, Philippa (2010-08-03). The Oxford Handbook
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^ Galton, Francis (1874). "On men of science, their nature and their
nurture". Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. 7:
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^ "Eugenics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Center for the
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^ Giles, Frances (2010) Marriage and the Family in the Middle Ages New
York: Harper Collins. p.ii ISBN 9780062016737
^ Goodell, William (1881–1882). "Clinical Notes on the Extirpation
of the Ovaries for Insanity". The American Journal of Insanity. Utica,
New York: State Lunatic Asylum. XXXVIII. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
^ Dowbiggin, Ian Robert (2003) [1997]. "A Confusing Wildness of
Recommendations: G. Alder Blumer, Eugenics, and U.S. Psychiatry,
1880–1940". Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and
Eugenics
Eugenics in the
United States and
Canada
Canada 1880–1940. Cornell University Press.
ISBN 0-8014-8398-0. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
^ a b Bowler, Peter J., Evolution: The History of an Idea, 3rd Ed.,
University of California Press, 2003, pp. 308–310.
^ a b Hansen, Randall (2005). "Eugenics". In Gibney, Matthew J.;
Hansen, Randall. Eugenics:
Immigration
Immigration and Asylum from 1990 to
Present. ABC-CLIO. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
^ James D., Watson; Berry, Andrew (2009). DNA: The Secret of Life.
Knopf.
^ Blom 2008, p. 336.
^ Allen, Garland E. (2004). "Was
Nazi eugenics
Nazi eugenics created in the US?".
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PMC 1299061 .
^ a b c Baker, G. J. (2014). "Christianity and Eugenics: The Place of
Religion in the British
Eugenics
Eugenics Education Society and the American
Eugenics
Eugenics Society, c.1907–1940". Social History of Medicine. Oxford
University Press. 27 (2): 281–302. doi:10.1093/shm/hku008.
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^ Barrett, Deborah; Kurzman, Charles (October 2004). "Globalizing
Social Movement Theory: The Case of Eugenics" (PDF). Theory and
Society. 33 (5): 487–527. doi:10.1023/b:ryso.0000045719.45687.aa.
JSTOR 4144884.
^ Hawkins, Mike (1997).
Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism in European and American
Thought. Cambridge University Press. pp. 62, 292.
ISBN 0-521-57434-X.
^ "The National Office of
Eugenics
Eugenics in Belgium". Science. 57 (1463):
46. 12 January 1923. Bibcode:1923Sci....57R..46..
doi:10.1126/science.57.1463.46.
^ dos Santos, Sales Augusto; Hallewell, Laurence (January 2002).
"Historical Roots of the 'Whitening' of Brazil". Latin American
Perspectives. 29 (1): 61–82. doi:10.1177/0094582X0202900104.
JSTOR 3185072.
^ McLaren, Angus (1990). Our Own Master Race:
Eugenics
Eugenics in Canada,
1885–1945. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-7710-5544-7. [page needed]
^ Black 2003, p. 240.
^ Black 2003, p. 286.
^ Black 2003, p. 40.
^ Black 2003, p. 45.
^ Black 2003, Chapter 6: The United States of Sterilization.
^ Black 2003, p. 237.
^ Black 2003, Chapter 5: Legitimizing Raceology.
^ Black 2003, Chapter 9: Mongrelization.
^ Ferrante, Joan (1 January 2010). Sociology: A Global Perspective.
Cengage Learning. pp. 259 ff. ISBN 978-0-8400-3204-1.
^ Turda, Marius (2010). "Race, Science and
Eugenics
Eugenics in the Twentieth
Century". In Bashford, Alison; Levine, Philippa. The Oxford Handbook
of the History of Eugenics. Oxford University Press. pp. 72–73.
ISBN 0-19-988829-9.
^ "Consumption: Its Cause and Cure" An Address by Dr Halliday
Sutherland on 4 September 1917, published by the Red Triangle Press.
^ "Lancelot Hogben, who developed his critique of eugenics and
distaste for racism in the period...he spent as Professor of Zoology
at the University of Cape Town". Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine,
The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics. Oxford; Oxford
University Press, 2010 ISBN 0199706530 (p.200)
^ "Whatever their disagreement on the numbers, Haldane, Fisher, and
most geneticists could support Jennings's warning: To encourage the
expectation that the sterilization of defectives will "solve the
problem of hereditary defects, close up the asylums for feebleminded
and insane, do away with prisons, is only to subject society to
deception". Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics. University of
California Press, 1985. ISBN 0520057635 (p. 166).
^ Congar, Yves M.-J. (1953). The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church and the Race Question
(pdf). Paris, France: UNESCO. Retrieved 3 July 2015. 4. The State is
not entitled to deprive an individual of his procreative power simply
for material (eugenic) purposes. But it is entitled to isolate
individuals who are sick and whose progeny would inevitably be
seriously tainted.
^
https://books.google.com.br/books?id=Ml4vDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=legalize+voluntary+sterilization+were+opposed+by+Catholics+and+by+the+Labour+Party&source=bl&ots=lpPJIRcvPV&sig=8KCZjFGWJYLyF9LPoVyiKrc0xms&hl=pt-BR&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiSg4zhwJnaAhUCO5AKHQH3CQsQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=legalize%20voluntary%20sterilization%20were%20opposed%20by%20Catholics%20and%20by%20the%20Labour%20Party&f=false
^ Pope Pius XI. "Casti connubii".
^ Ridley, Matt (1999). Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23
Chapters. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 290–291.
ISBN 978-0-06-089408-5.
^ Black 2003, pp. 274–295.
^ a b Black 2003.
^ Lynn 2001. p. 18 "By the middle decades of the twentieth century,
eugenics had become widely accepted throughout the whole of the
economically developed world, with the exception of the Soviet Union."
^ Turner, Jacky (2010). Animal Breeding, Welfare and Society.
Routledge. p. 296. ISBN 1844075893.
^ Clapham, Andrew (2007). Human Rights: A Very Short Introduction'.
Oxford University Press. pp. 29–31.
ISBN 9780199205523.
^ Article 2 of the Convention defines genocide as any of the following
acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a
national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such as:
Killing members of the group; Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
See the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide.
^ "Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union". Article 3,
Section 2.
^ Meilhan, Pierre & Brumfield, Ben (January 25, 2014). "Peru will
not prosecute former President over sterilization campaign". CNN.com.
CNN. Retrieved 19 October 2017.
^ Dikötter, F. (1998). Imperfect Conceptions: Medical Knowledge,
Birth Defects, and
Eugenics
Eugenics in China. Columbia University Press.
^ Miller, Geoffrey (2013). "2013: What Should We Be Worried About?
Chinese Eugenics". Edge. Edge Foundation. Retrieved 30 August
2014.
^ Dikötter, F. (1999). "'The legislation imposes decisions': Laws
about eugenics in China". UNESCO Courier.
United Nations
United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization. 1.
^ Antelava, Natalia (12 April 2012). "Uzbekistan's policy of secretly
sterilizing women". BBC News. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
^ Johnson, Corey G. (20 June 2014). "Calif. female inmates sterilized
illegally". USA Today. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
^ Epstein, Charles J. (1 November 2003). "Is modern genetics the new
eugenics?".
Genetics
Genetics in Medicine. 5 (6): 469–475.
doi:10.1097/01.GIM.0000093978.77435.17.
^ Simoncelli, Tania (2003). "Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis and
Selection: From disease prevention to customised conception" (PDF).
Different Takes. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October
2013. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
^ Dawkins, Richard (2006). "From the Afterward". The Herald. Glasgow.
Retrieved 17 October 2013.
^ Chan, Ying-kit (4 October 2016). "
Eugenics
Eugenics in Postcolonial
Singapore". Blynkt.com. Berlin. Retrieved 19 October 2017.
^ "13 Controversies of Lee Kuan Yew". MustShareNews.com. Singapore. 10
March 2015. Retrieved 19 October 2017.
^ "Report of the IBC on Updating Its Reflection on the Human Genome
and Human Rights" (PDF). International
Bioethics Committee. 2 October
2015. p. 27. Retrieved 22 October 2015. The goal of enhancing
individuals and the human species by engineering the genes related to
some characteristics and traits is not to be confused with the
barbarous projects of eugenics that planned the simple elimination of
human beings considered as ‘imperfect’ on an ideological basis.
However, it impinges upon the principle of respect for human dignity
in several ways. It weakens the idea that the differences among human
beings, regardless of the measure of their endowment, are exactly what
the recognition of their equality presupposes and therefore protects.
It introduces the risk of new forms of discrimination and
stigmatization for those who cannot afford such enhancement or simply
do not want to resort to it. The arguments that have been produced in
favour of the so-called liberal eugenics do not trump the indication
to apply the limit of medical reasons also in this case.
^ Silver, Lee M. (1998). Remaking Eden:
Cloning
Cloning and Beyond in a Brave
New World. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-380-79243-5.
OCLC 40094564.
^ Thomas, Gareth M.; Rothman, Barbara Katz (April 2016). "Keeping the
Backdoor to
Eugenics
Eugenics Ajar?: Disability and the Future of Prenatal
Screening". AMA Journal of Ethics. American Medical Association. 18
(4): 406–415. doi:10.1001/journalofethics.2016.18.4.stas1-1604.
Retrieved 2 September 2016. We argue that prenatal screening (and
specifically NIPT) for Down syndrome can be considered a form of
contemporary eugenics, in that it effaces, devalues, and possibly
prevents the births of people with the condition.
^ Galton, Francis (1883). Inquiries into Human Faculty and its
Development. London: Macmillan Publishers. p. 199.
^ "Correspondence between
Francis Galton
Francis Galton and Charles Darwin".
Galton.org. Retrieved 28 November 2011.
^ "The Correspondence of Charles Darwin". Darwin Correspondence
Project. University of Cambridge. Archived from the original on 24
January 2012. Retrieved 28 November 2011.
^ Blom 2008, pp. 335–336.
^ Ward, Lester Frank; Palmer Cape, Emily; Simons, Sarah Emma (1918).
"Eugenics, Euthenics and Eudemics". Glimpses of the Cosmos. G. P.
Putnam's sons. pp. 382 ff. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
^ Cited in Black 2003, p. 18
^ a b Spektorowski, Alberto; Ireni-Saban, Liza (2013). Politics of
Eugenics: Productionism, Population, and National Welfare. London:
Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-203-74023-1. Retrieved 16
January 2017. As an applied science, thus, the practice of eugenics
referred to everything from prenatal care for mothers to forced
sterilization and euthanasia. Galton divided the practice of eugenics
into two types—positive and negative—both aimed at improving the
human race through selective breeding.
^ Haldane, J. (1940). "Lysenko and Genetics". Science and Society. 4
(4).
^ A discussion of the shifting meanings of the term can be found in
Paul, Diane (1995). Controlling Human Heredity: 1865 to the Present.
New Jersey: Humanities Press. ISBN 1-57392-343-5.
^ Black, Edwin (2004). War Against the Weak. Thunder's Mouth Press.
p. 370. ISBN 978-1-56858-321-1.
^ Black, Edwin (2004). War Against the Weak. Thunder's Mouth Press.
p. 370. ISBN 978-1-56858-321-1.
^ Worrall, Simon (24 July 2016). "The Gene: Science's Most Dangerous
Idea". National Geographic.
^ White, Susan (28 June 2017). "LibGuides: The Sociology of Science
and Technology: Pseudoscience". Library of University of Princeton.
Retrieved 12 September 2017.
^ Salgirli, S. G. (July 2011). "
Eugenics
Eugenics for the doctors: Medicine and
social control in 1930s Turkey". Journal of the History of Medicine
and Allied Sciences. 66 (3): 281–312. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrq040.
PMID 20562206.
^ a b Glad, John (2008). Future Human Evolution:
Eugenics
Eugenics in the
Twenty-First Century (PDF). Hermitage Publishers.
ISBN 1-55779-154-6.
^ Pine, Lisa (1997). Nazi Family Policy, 1933–1945. Berg.
pp. 19 ff. ISBN 978-1-85973-907-5. Retrieved 11 April
2012.
^ Entine, John (30 December 2014). "Let's (Cautiously) Celebrate the
'New Eugenics'". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
^ Lynn 2001. Part III. The Implementation of Classical
Eugenics
Eugenics pp.
137–244 Part IV. The New
Eugenics
Eugenics pp. 245–320
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 165–186
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 169–170
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 170–172
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 172–174
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 174–176
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 176–178
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 179–181
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 181–182
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 182–185
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 187–204
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 188–189
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 189–190
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 190–191
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 191–192
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 194–195
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 196–199. Quote: "There is, nevertheless, a good
case for reviving the sterilization of the mentally retarded and
criminals. It is indisputable on both empirical and theorethical
ground that many of these people transmit their characteristics to
their children by both genetic and environmental processes."
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 199–201. First quote: "The rationale for this
sentencing policy was that the judges considered these women unfit to
rear children and that they should therefore be prevented from having
more, at least for a few years." Second quote: "In these and similar
cases many people will no doubt accept that the judges were right in
deciding that the women were unfit mothers and likely to cause harm to
any future children and that it would be desirable to prevent further
pregnancies. It is preferable for these women to be put on probation
conditional on temporary sterilization than to send them to prison,
which in most cases would serve little useful purpose. These judges'
decisions were not made ostensibly on eugenic grounds, but they
furthered the eugenic objective of preventing these women from having
children, at least for a limited period. The eugenic objective should
be to support these judicial sentences and to promote their use more
often, together with the stipulation of longer periods of
contraception and, preferably, permanent sterilization"
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 201–203. Quote: "A better alternative, from the
point of view of reducing future criminal offending and the promotion
of eugenics, would be for judges to offer convicted male criminals the
alternatives of imprisonment or castration accompanied by probation."
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 205–214
^ Istvan, Zoltan (14 August 2014). "It's time to consider restricting
human breeding". Wired.com. Condé Nast. Retrieved 19 October
2017.
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 211–213.
Richard Lynn
Richard Lynn argued that to have an
effective licensing program, reversible sterilization methods should
be used. Those who wish to have children would obtain the licence and
have the sterilization reversed. Lynn stated that the proposals made
by Francis Galton, Hugh LaFollette and John Westman would not be
effective from the eugenicists' viewpoint, since those without
licences could still have children. The proposal by David Lykken would
be only slightly effective.
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 215–224
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 215–217
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 217–219
^ Lynn 2001. p. 219
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 220–221. Quote: "While it can be confidently
expected that elites would respond to financial incentives to have
children and to penalties for childlessness by increasing their
fertility, they might not do this to the extent that would be desired.
Ideally a program of positive eugenics would increase the fertility of
the elite to perhaps around four children per couple; and at the same
time a complementary program of negative eugenics would reduce the
fertility of those with low intelligence and psychopathic personality
to zero.
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 222–224. Quote: "The final strategy for the
promotion of positive eugenics would consist of the acceptance of
good-quality immigrants."
^ Lynn 2001. p. 246
^ Redvaldsen, David (26 June 2014). "Eugenics, socialism and
artificial insemination: The public career of Herbert Brewer".
Historical Research. 88 (239): 138–160. doi:10.1111/1468-2281.12074.
Retrieved 19 October 2017.
^ Lynn 2001. p. 247
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 248–251
^ Lynn 2001. p. 252
^ Lynn 2001. p. 253
^ Lynn 2001. p. 254
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 254–255
^ a b Blom 2008, pp. 336–7.
^ "Social Origins of Eugenics". Eugenicsarchive.org. Retrieved 19
October 2017.
^ Carlson, Elof Axel (2002). "Scientific Origins of Eugenics". Image
Archive on the American
Eugenics
Eugenics Movement. Dolan DNA Learning Center,
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
^ Leonard, Thomas C. (Tim) (Fall 2005). "Retrospectives:
Eugenics
Eugenics and
Economics in the Progressive Era" (pdf). Journal of Economic
Perspectives. 19 (4): 207–224. doi:10.1257/089533005775196642.
Retrieved 3 October 2013.
^ a b "Heterozygote test / Screening programmes — DRZE". Drze.de.
Retrieved 19 October 2017.
^ "Fatal Gift: Jewish Intelligence and Western Civilization". Archived
from the original on 13 August 2009.
^ Stearns, F. W. (2010). "One Hundred Years of Pleiotropy: A
Retrospective". Genetics. 186 (3): 767–773.
doi:10.1534/genetics.110.122549. PMC 2975297 .
PMID 21062962.
^ Jones, A. (2000). "Effect of eugenics on the evolution of
populations". European Physical Journal B. 17 (2): 329–332.
Bibcode:2000EPJB...17..329P. doi:10.1007/s100510070148.
^ (Galton 2001, 48)[full citation needed]
^ a b Miller, Edward M. (1997). "Eugenics: Economics for the Long
Run". Research in Biopolitics. 5: 391–416.
^ Bentwich, M. (2013). "On the inseparability of gender eugenics,
ethics, and public policy: An Israeli perspective". American Journal
of Bioethics. 13 (10): 43–45.
doi:10.1080/15265161.2013.828128.
^ Fischer, B. A. (2012). "Maltreatment of people with serious mental
illness in the early 20th century: A focus on
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany and
eugenics in America". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 200 (12):
1096–1100. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e318275d391.
^ Hoge, S. K.; Appelbaum, P. S. (2012). "Ethics and neuropsychiatric
genetics: A review of major issues". International Journal of
Neuropsychopharmacology. 15 (10): 1547–1557.
doi:10.1017/S1461145711001982.
^ Witzany, G. (2016). "No time to waste on the road to a liberal
eugenics?". EMBO Reports. 17 (3): 281. doi:10.15252/embr.201541855.
PMC 4772985 . PMID 26882552.
^ Baird, S. L. (2007). "Designer babies:
Eugenics
Eugenics repackaged or
consumer options?". Technology Teacher. 66 (7): 12–16.
^ Roberts, M. A. "The Nonidentity Problem". Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
^ Lynn 2001. The Ethical Principles of Classical
Eugenics
Eugenics –
Conclusions P. 241 Quote: "A number of the opponents of eugenics have
resorted to the slippery slope argument, which states that although a
number of eugenic measures are unobjectionable in themselves, they
could lead to further measures that would be unethical. This argument
is unpersuasive because all sorts of measures that are acceptable
might, if taken to extremes, lead to other measures that are
unacceptable."
^ Black, Edwin (2003). War Against the Weak:
Eugenics
Eugenics and America's
Campaign to Create a Master Race. Four Walls Eight Windows.
ISBN 1-56858-258-7.
^ Darnovsky, Marcy (2001). "Health and human rights leaders call for
an international ban on species-altering procedures". Retrieved
February 21, 2006.
^ Annas, George; Andrews, Lori; Isasi, Rosario (2002). "Protecting the
endangered human: Toward an international treaty prohibiting cloning
and inheritable alterations". American Journal of Law & Medicine.
28: 151.
^ McKibben, Bill (2003). Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age.
Times Books. ISBN 0-8050-7096-6. OCLC 237794777.
^ Comfort, Nathaniel (12 November 2012). "The
Eugenics
Eugenics Impulse". The
Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
^ Comfort, Nathaniel. The Science of Human Perfection: How Genes
Became the Heart of American Medicine. New Haven: Yale University
Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16991-1.
^ Wilkinson, Stephen; Garrard, Eve. "
Eugenics
Eugenics and the Ethics of
Selective Reproduction" (PDF). Keele University.
ISBN 978-0-9576160-0-4. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
^ Buchanan, Allen; Brock, Dan W.; Daniels, Norman; Wikler, Daniel
(2000). From Chance to Choice:
Genetics
Genetics and Justice. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-66977-4. OCLC 41211380.
^ Shaw, p. 147. Quote: "What Rawls says is that "Over time a society
is to take steps to preserve the general level of natural abilities
and to prevent the diffusion of serious defects." The key words here
are "preserve" and "prevent". Rawls clearly envisages only the use of
negative eugenics as a preventative measure to ensure a good basic
level of genetic health for future generations. To jump from this to
"make the later generations as genetically talented as possible," as
Pence does, is a masterpiece of misinterpretation. This, then, is the
sixth argument against positive eugenics: the Veil of Ignorance
argument. Those behind the Veil in Rawls' Original Position would
agree to permit negative, but not positive eugenics. This is a more
complex variant of the Consent argument, as the Veil of Ignorance
merely forces us to adopt a position of hypotethical consent to
particular principles of justice."
^ Harding, John R. (1991). "Beyond Abortion: Human
Genetics
Genetics and the
New Eugenics". Pepperdine Law Review. 18 (3): 489–491. Retrieved
2016-06-02. Rawls arrives at the difference principle by considering
how justice might be drawn from a hypothetical "original position.' A
person in the original position operates behind a "veil of ignorance"
that prevents her from knowing any information about herself such as
social status, physical or mental capabilities, or even her belief
system. Only from such a position of universal equality can principles
of justice be drawn. In establishing how to distribute social primary
goods, for example, "rights and liberties, powers and opportunities,
income and wealth" and self-respect, Rawls determines that a person
operating from the original position would develop two principles.
First, liberties ascribed to each individual should be as extensive as
possible without infringing upon the liberties of others. Second,
social primary goods should be distributed to the greatest advantage
of everyone and by mechanisms that allow equal opportunity to all. ...
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering should not be permitted merely for the enhancement
of physical attractiveness because that would not benefit the least
advantaged. Arguably, resources should be concentrated on genetic
therapy to address disease and genetic defects. However, such a result
is not required under Rawls' theory.
Genetic enhancement
Genetic enhancement of those
already intellectually gifted, for example, might result in even
greater benefit to the least advantaged as a result of the gifted
individual's improved productivity. Moreover, Rawls asserts that using
genetic engineering to prevent the most serious genetic defects is a
matter of intergenerational justice. Such actions are necessary in
terms of what the present generation owes to later generations.
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Fruitless Search for Genes. New York: Algora.
ISBN 978-0-87586-410-5. Archived from the original on 17 April
2009.
Kerr, Anne; Shakespeare, Tom (2002). Genetic Politics: from Eugenics
to Genome. Cheltenham: New Clarion. ISBN 978-1-873797-25-9.
Maranto, Gina (1996). Quest for perfection: the drive to breed better
human beings. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-80029-2.
Ordover, Nancy (2003). American Eugenics: Race, Queer Anatomy, and the
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Shakespeare, Tom (1995). "Back to the Future? New
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Genetics and
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Further reading
Anomaly, Jonathan (2018). Defending
Eugenics
Eugenics (PDF). Palgrave
Press.
Condit, Celeste M. (2010). "Rhetorical Engagements in the Scientist's
Process of Remaking Race as Genetic". The University of South Carolina
Press. ISBN 9781299241091.
Winegard, Bo (2017). Human Biodiversity:
Genetics
Genetics and Race.
Springer.
Gyngell, Christopher; Selgelid, Michael (2016). Twenty-First Century
Eugenics. Oxford University Press.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eugenics.
Wikisource has several original texts related to: Eugenics
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Genetic engineering
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v t e
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Writers
Louis Agassiz John Baker Erwin Baur John Beddoe Robert Bennett Bean François Bernier Renato Biasutti Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Franz Boas Paul Broca Alice Mossie Brues Halfdan Bryn Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon Charles Caldwell Petrus Camper Samuel A. Cartwright Houston Stewart Chamberlain Sonia Mary Cole Carleton S. Coon Georges Cuvier Jan Czekanowski Charles Davenport Joseph Deniker Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt Anténor Firmin Eugen Fischer John Fiske Francis Galton Stanley Marion Garn Reginald Ruggles Gates George Gliddon Arthur de Gobineau Madison Grant John Grattan Hans F. K. Günther Ernst Haeckel Frederick Ludwig Hoffman Earnest Hooton Julian Huxley Thomas Henry Huxley Calvin Ira Kephart Robert Knox Robert E. Kuttner Georges Vacher de Lapouge Fritz Lenz Carl Linnaeus Cesare Lombroso Bertil Lundman Felix von Luschan Dominick McCausland John Mitchell Ashley Montagu Lewis H. Morgan Samuel George Morton Josiah C. Nott Karl Pearson Oscar Peschel Isaac La Peyrère Charles Pickering Ludwig Hermann Plate Alfred Ploetz James Cowles Prichard Otto Reche Gustaf Retzius William Z. Ripley Alfred Rosenberg Benjamin Rush Henric Sanielevici Heinrich Schmidt Ilse Schwidetzky Charles Gabriel Seligman Giuseppe Sergi Samuel Stanhope Smith Herbert Spencer Morris Steggerda Lothrop Stoddard William Graham Sumner Thomas Griffith Taylor Paul Topinard John H. Van Evrie Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer Rudolf Virchow Voltaire Alexander Winchell Ludwig Woltmann
Writings
An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People in
Different Climates (1744)
The Outline of History of Mankind (1785)
Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question (1849)
An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1855)
The Races of
Europe
Europe (Ripley, 1899)
The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899)
Race Life of the
Aryan
Aryan Peoples (1907)
Heredity
Heredity in Relation to
Eugenics
Eugenics (1911)
Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development (1916)
The Passing of the Great Race
The Passing of the Great Race (1916)
The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy
The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy (1920)
The Myth of the Twentieth Century
The Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930)
Annihilation of
Caste
Caste (1936)
The Races of
Europe
Europe (Coon, 1939)
An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus
(1943)
The Race Question
The Race Question (1950)
Theories
Eugenics Great chain of being Monogenism Polygenism Pre-Adamite
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in Brazil in Colombia
in Singapore in the United States
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Authority control
GND: 4015656-4 HDS: 1