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Contents
1 Definition and etymology 2 Climate 3 Flora and fauna
3.1 Plants 3.2 Animals
4 Natural resources 5 Palaeontology 6 Indigenous population 7 International cooperation and politics
7.1 Territorial claims 7.2 Exploration 7.3 Pollution 7.4 Preservation
8 Global warming
9
Arctic
Arctic waters
10
Arctic
Arctic lands
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 Bibliography
15 Further reading
16 External links
Definition and etymology[edit]
The word
Arctic
Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός
(arktikos), "near the Bear, northern"[6] and that from the word
ἄρκτος (arktos), meaning bear.[7] The name refers either to the
constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", which is prominent in the
northern portion of the celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa
Minor, the "Little Bear", which contains Polaris, the Pole star, also
known as the North Star.[8]
There are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the
Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the
Arctic Circle
Arctic Circle (66°
33'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the
polar night. Another definition of the
Arctic
Arctic is the region where the
average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 °C
(50 °F); the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm
at the boundary of this region.[9][10]
Climate[edit]
Main articles:
Climate of the Arctic
Climate of the Arctic and
Global warming
Global warming in the Arctic
The Arctic's climate is characterized by cold winters and cool
summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is
low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm
(20 in). High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of
continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can be as low as
−40 °C (−40 °F), and the coldest recorded temperature
is approximately −68 °C (−90 °F). Coastal Arctic
climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer
temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior
areas. The
Arctic
Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to
Arctic
Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the
Greenland
Greenland ice sheet,
and
Arctic methane release
Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws.
Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about
35 mi (56 km) per decade during the past 30 years as a
consequence of global warming), the
Arctic
Arctic region (as defined by tree
line and temperature) is currently shrinking.[11] Perhaps the most
alarming result of this is arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large
variance in predictions of
Arctic
Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing
near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time
well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near-complete
to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100.[3]
Flora and fauna[edit]
Arctic
Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons
with long periods of sunlight, and to cold, dark, snow-covered winter
conditions.
Plants[edit]
Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs,
graminoids, herbs, lichens, and mosses, which all grow relatively
close to the ground, forming tundra. An example of a dwarf shrub is
the Bearberry. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available
for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas,
plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the
total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of
energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder
summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and
variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in
its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft
7 in) in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick
layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is
bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate,
along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the
Arctic
Arctic poppy).
Animals[edit]
Muskox
A snowy owl
Herbivores on the tundra include the
Arctic
Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and
caribou. They are preyed on by the snowy owl,
Arctic
Arctic fox, Grizzly
bear, and wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers
to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and
marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial
animals include wolverines, moose, Dall sheep, ermines, and Arctic
ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walrus, and several
species of cetacean—baleen whales and also narwhals, killer whales,
and belugas. An excellent and famous example of a ring species exists
and has been described around the arctic circle in the form of the
Larus
Larus gulls.
Natural resources[edit]
See also:
Natural resources of the Arctic and Petroleum exploration in
the Arctic
The
Arctic
Arctic includes sizable natural resources (oil, gas, minerals,
fresh water, fish and if the subarctic is included, forest) to which
modern technology and the economic opening up of
Russia
Russia have given
significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is
also on the increase.
The
Arctic
Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous
wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving
biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of
humans fragments vital habitats. The
Arctic
Arctic is particularly
susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of
the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic to
the region. The
Arctic
Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water
supply.[citation needed]
Palaeontology[edit]
Marine fossils in Canadian Arctic
During the
Cretaceous
Cretaceous time period, the
Arctic
Arctic still had seasonal
snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently
hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus,
Troodon, and
Edmontosaurus
Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take
advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer
climes when the winter came. A similar situation may also have been
found amongst dinosaurs that lived in
Antarctic
Antarctic regions, such as the
Muttaburrasaurus
Muttaburrasaurus of Australia.
However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year-round at very high
latitudes, such as near the Colville River, which is now at about
70° N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10° further
north.[12]
Indigenous population[edit]
Circumpolar coastal human population distribution c. 2009 (includes indigenous and non-indigenous).
Main article: Circumpolar peoples
Further information:
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples of
Siberia
Siberia and Inuit
Circumpolar Council
The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic
are referred to as the
Arctic small tool tradition
Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed
c. 2500 BC. AST consisted of several
Paleo-Eskimo
Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including
the Independence cultures and
Pre-Dorset culture.[13][14] The Dorset
culture (Inuktitut: Tuniit or Tunit) refers to the next inhabitants of
central and eastern Arctic. The
Dorset culture
Dorset culture evolved because of
technological and economic changes during the period of 1050–550 BC.
With the exception of the Quebec/
Labrador
Labrador peninsula, the Dorset
culture vanished around 1500 AD.[15] Supported by genetic testing,
evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the
Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until
the beginning of the 20th century.[16]
The Dorset/Thule culture transition dates around the 9th–10th
centuries. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact
of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning
harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted
their ways with the predecessor culture.[17] Others believe the Thule
displaced the Dorset. By 1300, the Inuit, present-day Arctic
inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west
Greenland, and moved into east
Greenland
Greenland over the following century.
Over time, the
Inuit
Inuit have migrated throughout the
Arctic
Arctic regions of
Canada, Greenland, Russia, and the United States.[18]
Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi,
Evenks, Inupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sami, Yukaghir, Gwich'in,
and Yupik. The Yupik still refer to themselves as Eskimo, which means
"snowshoe netters", not "raw meat eaters" as it is sometimes
mistakenly translated.[19]
International cooperation and politics[edit]
Main article:
Arctic
Arctic cooperation and politics
Polar bears on the sea ice of the
Arctic
Arctic Ocean, near the North Pole.
USS Honolulu pictured.
The eight
Arctic
Arctic nations (Canada,
Kingdom of Denmark
Kingdom of Denmark (
Greenland
Greenland &
The Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and USA)
are all members of the
Arctic
Arctic Council, as are organizations
representing six indigenous populations. The Council operates on
consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not
addressing boundary or resource disputes.
Though
Arctic
Arctic policy priorities differ, every
Arctic
Arctic nation is
concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping
routes, and environmental protection.[20] Much work remains on
regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource
development in
Arctic
Arctic waters.[21]
Research in the
Arctic
Arctic has long been a collaborative international
effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year. The International
Arctic
Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of
the
Arctic
Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro-
Arctic Council
Arctic Council are more
examples of collaborative international
Arctic
Arctic research.
Territorial claims[edit]
Main article: Territorial claims in the Arctic
No country owns the geographic
North Pole
North Pole or the region of the Arctic
Ocean
Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six
Arctic
Arctic states that border
the
Arctic
Arctic Ocean—Canada,
Kingdom of Denmark
Kingdom of Denmark (with Greenland),
Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States—are limited to a 200
nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone
(EEZ) off their coasts. Two
Arctic
Arctic states (
Finland
Finland and Sweden) do not
have direct access to the
Arctic
Arctic Ocean.
Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental
shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone.[20][22] Due to this, Norway
(which ratified the convention in 1996),[23]
Russia
Russia (ratified in
1997),[23]
Canada
Canada (ratified in 2003)[23] and the Kingdom of Denmark
(ratified in 2004)[23] launched projects to establish claims that
certain sectors of the
Arctic
Arctic seabed should belong to their
territories.
On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the
first time in history descended to the
Arctic
Arctic seabed beneath the North
Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium
alloy. The flag-placing during
Arktika 2007
Arktika 2007 generated commentary on
and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon
resources.[24]
Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom
of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the
United States
United States met in Ilulissat,
Greenland
Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the
Arctic Ocean
Arctic Ocean Conference and announced
the
Ilulissat
Ilulissat Declaration,[25][26] blocking any "new comprehensive
international legal regime to govern the
Arctic
Arctic Ocean," and pledging
"the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims."[20][27]
As of 2012, the
Kingdom of Denmark
Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf
between
Greenland
Greenland and the North Pole.[28] The Russian Federation is
claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but
confined to its sector of the Arctic.
In August 2015,
Russia
Russia submitted an application for the expansion of
the external borders of the continental shelf in the
Arctic
Arctic Ocean,
asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the
Mendeleyev Ridge are an extension of the Eurasian continent. In August
2016, the UN
Special
Special Commission began to consider the application of
Russia.[29]
Exploration[edit]
Main article:
Arctic
Arctic exploration
See also: Petroleum exploration in the Arctic
Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian-side
Arctic
Arctic region has
been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice
stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews
established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and
were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.[30]
Pollution[edit]
Long-range pollution pathways to the Arctic
The
Arctic
Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain
ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a
serious threat to people's health living around these pollution
sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the
Arctic
Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport pollutants,
and in some places the concentrations exceed the levels of densely
populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic
haze, which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another
example is with the bioaccumulation of PCB's (polychlorinated
biphenyls) in
Arctic
Arctic wildlife and people.
Preservation[edit]
Main article: Save the Arctic
There have been many proposals to preserve the
Arctic
Arctic over the years.
Most recently a group of stars at the Rio
Earth
Earth Summit, on 21 June
2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic
protection. The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution
creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling
and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic.[31]
Global warming[edit]
Main article:
Global warming
Global warming in the Arctic
The effects of global warming in the
Arctic
Arctic include rising
temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the
Greenland
Greenland ice sheet.
Potential methane release from the region, especially through the
thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern.
Because of the amplified response of the
Arctic
Arctic to global warming, it
is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of
Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.[32][33]
Arctic
Arctic sea ice coverage as of 2007 compared to 2005 and compared to
1979–2000 average
The development of
Arctic
Arctic sea ice area as measured with
satellites.[34]
The
Arctic
Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate
change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent
years. Climate models predict much greater warming in the
Arctic
Arctic than
the global average,[35] resulting in significant international
attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic
shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in
Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels
worldwide.[36]
The current
Arctic
Arctic warming is leading to fears of ancient carbon being
released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon
dioxide production by micro-organisms.[37] Release of methane and
carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe
global warming,[38] as they are potent greenhouse gases.
Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on Tundra
vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs,[39] and having a negative
impact on bryophytes and lichens.[40]
Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in
the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The
melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, the shipping
routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the
possibility that the
Arctic
Arctic region will become a prime trade
route.[41] One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic
took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity
successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large
cruise ship.[42] In addition, it is believed that the
Arctic
Arctic seabed
may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the
ice covering them melts.[43] These factors have led to recent
international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or
ownership over the waters of the Arctic.[44][45][46][47]
Eidsfjord in Vesterålen,
Norway
Norway is 250 km (160 mi) inside
the
Arctic
Arctic Circle, but the comparatively temperate Norwegian sea gives
a mean annual temperature of 4 °C (39 °F) and a
three-month summer above 10°C.[48]
Arctic
Arctic waters[edit]
Arctic
Arctic Ocean
Baffin Bay
Beaufort Sea
Barents Sea
Bering Sea
Bering Strait
Chukchi Sea
Davis Strait
Denmark Strait
East Siberian Sea
Greenland
Greenland Sea
Hudson Bay
Kara Sea
Laptev Sea
Nares Strait
Norwegian Sea
Arctic
Arctic lands[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Geographic Designation National Affiliation Designation
Alaska United States State
Aleutian Islands United States American Archipelago
Arkhangelsk Oblast Russia Federal subject
Canadian Arctic
Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Canada
Canadian Archipelago
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug Russia Federal subject
Diomede Island (Big) Russia Island
Diomede Island (Little) United States Island
Finnmark Norway County
Franz Josef Land Russia Federal subject archipelago
Greenland Kingdom of Denmark Autonomous country
Grímsey Iceland Island
Jan Mayen Norway Island
Krasnoyarsk Krai Russia Federal subject
Lapland Sweden Province
Murmansk Oblast Russia Federal subject
Nenets Autonomous Okrug Russia Federal subject
New Siberian Islands Russia Archipelago
Nordland Norway County
Norrbotten Sweden Province
Northwest Territories Canada Territory
Novaya Zemlya Russia Federal subject archipelago
Nunavik Canada Northern part of Quebec
Nunavut Canada Territory
Russian
Arctic
Arctic islands
Russia
Islands
Sápmi
Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia
Fennoscandia
Fennoscandia region
Sakha Republic Russia Federal subject
Severnaya Zemlya Russia Federal subject archipelago
Siberia Russia Region
Svalbard
Norway
Governor of
Svalbard
Svalbard archipelago
Troms Norway County
Yukon Canada Territory
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug Russia Federal subject
Wrangel Island
Russia
Zapovednik
Zapovednik (nature reserve)
See also[edit]
Arctic
Arctic portal
Antarctica
Antarctica portal
Geography portal
List of countries by northernmost point
Poverty in the Arctic
Ring species
Antarctic
Arctic
Arctic Cooperation and Politics
Notes[edit]
^ The word was originally pronounced without the /k/ sound, but the pronunciation with the k sound is nowadays very common. The "c" was added to the spelling for etymological reasons[1][2] and then began to be pronounced, but (as with other spelling pronunciations) at first only by less educated people.
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^ Harper, Douglas. "Antarctic". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved
16 November 2011.
^ a b Serreze, Mc; Holland, Mm; Stroeve, J (Mar 2007). "Perspectives
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1533–6. Bibcode:2007Sci...315.1533S. doi:10.1126/science.1139426.
PMID 17363664.
^ "Global Sea Ice Extent and Concentration: What sensors on satellites
are telling us about sea ice." National Snow and Ice Data Center.
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^ Christopher Krembs and Jody Deming. "Organisms that thrive in Arctic
sea ice." National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 18 November
2006.
^ Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert. "Arktikos." A Greek-English
Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.
^ Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert. "Arktos." A Greek-English
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^ "The Great
Bear
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^ "arctic." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
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^ Addison, Kenneth (2002). Fundamentals of the physical environment.
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^ Hansen, Jim (19 October 2006). "The Planet in Peril – Part I".
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^ "A palaeontologist's Alaskan adventure". New Scientist. 9 June
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^ Hoffecker, John F. (2005). A prehistory of the north: human
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^ Gibbon, pp. 28–31
^ Gibbon, pp. 216–217
^ McGhee, Robert (2005). The last imaginary place: a human history of
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^ a b c Buixadé Farré, Albert; Stephenson, Scott R.; Chen, Linling;
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^ Fetterer, F., K. Knowles, W. Meier, and M. Savoie. 2002, updated
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Center. Digital media.
^ "Impacts of a warming Arctic:
Arctic
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^ Grinberg, Emanuella (17 December 2008). "Ice melting across globe at
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^ Lenton, T. M.; Held, H.; Kriegler, E.; Hall, J. W.; Lucht, W.;
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elements in the Earth's climate system". Proceedings of the National
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^ "Abrupt Climate Change Focus Of U.S. National Laboratories". Science
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^ Myers-Smith, Isla H.; Forbes, Bruce C.; Wilmking, Martin; Hallinger,
Martin; Lantz, Trevor; Blok, Daan; Tape, Ken D.; Macias-Fauria, Marc;
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^ Alatalo, Juha M.; Jägerbrand, Annika K.; Molau, Ulf (2015-11-01).
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^ "Will ice melt open fabled Northwest Passage?" Archived 9 November
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^ "Largest Cruise Ship Ever To Sail
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^ Demos, Telis. "The great
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^ Shaw, Rob. "New patrol ships will reassert northern sovereignty:
PM". Victoria Times Colonist. 9 July 2007.
^ Halpin, Tony. "
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^ "
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^ "Conference could mark start of
Arctic
Arctic power struggle". Canada.com.
28 May 2008. Archived from the original on 4 March 2009.
^ Stokmarknes in
Vesterålen
Vesterålen 1961–1990 average. Retro.met.no (28
January 2008). Retrieved 2011-10-18.
Bibliography[edit]
Gibbon, Guy E.; Kenneth M. Ames (1998). Archaeology of prehistoric native America: an encyclopedia. Volume 1537 of Garland reference library of the humanities. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-8153-0725-X.
Further reading[edit]
Brian W. Coad, James D. Reist. (2017). Marine Fishes of
Arctic
Arctic Canada.
University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1442647107
"Global Security, Climate Change, and the Arctic" – 24-page special
journal issue (fall 2009), Swords and Ploughshares, Program in Arms
Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS), University
of Illinois
GLOBIO Human Impact maps Report on human impacts on the Arctic
Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller, eds. Smithsonian
at the Poles: Contributions to
International Polar Year
International Polar Year Science.
Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2009.
Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander: The
Arctic
Arctic at the
Crossroads of Geopolitical Interests Russian Politics and Law, 2012,
Vol.50, No.2, pp. 34–54
Käpylä, Juha & Mikkola, Harri: The Global Arctic: The Growing
Arctic
Arctic Interests of Russia, China, the
United States
United States and the European
Union FIIA Briefing Paper 133, August 2013, The Finnish Institute of
International Affairs.
Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander. The
Arctic
Arctic at the
crossroads of geopolitical interests // Russian Politics and Law,
2012. — Vol. 50, — № 2. — P. 34-54
Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander: Is
Russia
Russia a revisionist
military power in the Arctic? Defense & Security Analysis,
September 2014.
Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander.
Russia
Russia in search of its
Arctic
Arctic strategy: between hard and soft power? Polar Journal, April
2014.
O'Rourke, Ronald (14 October 2016). Changes in the Arctic: Background
and Issues for Congress (PDF). Washington, DC: Congressional Research
Service. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
Sperry, Armstrong (1957). All About the
Arctic
Arctic and Antarctic. Random
House. LCCN 57007518.
http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/energy/great-energy-challenge/arctic/
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Ross expedition
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Cooper Challenger expedition
HMS Challenger Nares Murray
Jason
C. A. Larsen
"Heroic Age"
Belgian
Antarctic
Antarctic Expedition
Belgica de Gerlache Lecointe Amundsen Cook Arctowski Racoviță Dobrowolski
Southern Cross
Southern Cross Borchgrevink
Discovery
Discovery Discovery Hut
Gauss
Gauss Drygalski
Swedish
Antarctic
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Antarctic O. Nordenskjöld C. A. Larsen
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Nimrod
French
Antarctic
Antarctic Expeditions
Pourquoi-Pas Charcot
Japanese
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Antarctic Expedition
Shirase
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South Pole
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Fram Amundsen Framheim Polheim
Terra Nova
Terra Nova Scott Wilson E. R. Evans Crean Lashly
Filchner
Australasian
Antarctic
Antarctic Expedition
SY Aurora Mawson
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Imperial Trans-
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Antarctic Expedition
Endurance Ernest Shackleton Wild
James Caird
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Quest
IPY · IGY Modern research
Christensen Byrd BANZARE BGLE
Rymill
New Swabia
Ritscher
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Marr
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Captain Arturo Prat Base
British
Antarctic
Antarctic Survey
Operation Windmill
Ketchum
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F. Ronne E. Ronne Schlossbach
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Antarctic Expedition
Hillary V. Fuchs
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Mawson David Mackay
Amundsen's
South Pole
South Pole expedition
Fram Amundsen Bjaaland Helmer Hassel Wisting Polheim
Terra Nova
Scott E. Evans Oates Wilson Bowers
Byrd
Balchen
McKinley
Dufek
Amundsen–Scott
South Pole
South Pole Station
Hillary
V. Fuchs
Pole of Cold
Vostok Station
Pole of inaccessibility
Pole of Inaccessibility Station Tolstikov
Crary A. Fuchs Messner
v t e
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WorldCat Identities VIAF: 247151216 GN